His-Story

"Of their Settling in Holland, and their Manner of living, and Entertainment there" Chapter 3, 1609 - 1620 A.D.

2009-09-26T17:45:00.012-05:00

1... Finally, the Pilgrims have arrived in Holland and, what's even more thrilling, I'm on the third chapter of this book! (Actually I have read much further, this is the third chapter I've taken notes on)

...For one year the pilgrims lived in Amsterdam, famous for its numerous canals and dikes.

...Then they moved to Leyden, or Leiden, as the modern day spelling would have it, which was and is a prosperous little town in the Low Lands. Below is a map for exact location.

...At the time Leiden was actually quite famous, having just defeated the Spaniards in a daring siege some thirty or so years before. The story of that siege is worth including here, since it will give some insights as to the inhabitants character. For brevity's sake I will not give the tale in my own, vibrant rendition, which tends to be rather long, and instead post the short unexciting facts straight off of Wikipedia. (Not always the best resource keep in mind) You can also go here for one of my own versions elsewhere. (Note, in the last link Leyden is not specifically mentioned, merely the way between Spain and the Netherlands.)

..."In 1572, the city sided with the Dutch revolt against Spanish rule and played an important role in the Eighty Years' War. Besieged from May until October 1574 by the Spanish, Leiden was relieved by the cutting of the dikes, thus enabling ships to carry provisions to the inhabitants of the flooded town. As a reward for the heroic defense of the previous year, the University of Leiden was founded by William I of Orange in 1575. Yearly on 3 October, the end of the siege is still celebrated in Leiden. Tradition tells that the citizens were offered the choice between a university and a certain exemption from taxes and chose the university."

... To continue. This chapter will cover the time between 1609 and 1620 in which the Puritans try to make a life for themselves in Holland, and end up being dissatisfied with the mode of life there. And for good reasons as we will see. It was in Leiden that the idea of leaving for the New World is born.

...2. Terms Defined!

...A. "Theses"; "In the original meaning of the word: propositions which would be posted up on a university bulletin board as a challenge to others to dispute if they would." Samuel Morison

...B. "Burgomaster"; Not the daddy of burger flipping. "This is the chief magistrate of a town in some European countries." Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online ...

C. "Scaliger, Heinsius, Arminius, Vorstius, Golius, and Cluvier." I just wanted to make sure you were awake and paying attention. These are actually not terms that will likely come up in my reviews but they are proper names. These men were scholars at the University of Leyden during, before, and after, the pilgrims stay there.

3. Facts, facts, facts!

...As I have already stated, the Puritans slowly but surely trickled into the Low Countries. They came separately, in small groups, and however they could. It was hard to sneak in and took them nearly a year to all get across. Mr. Robinson and Mr. Brewster, Elders in the Seperatist congregation, were some of the last to come. Bradford notes that they were concerned for the weaker members of their flock and stayed to help them over. And at long last, everyone was in Amsterdam.

...And what a to do Amsterdam was. It happened to be a large, prosperous, growing, city at the time. Trade was booming with the lifted restrictions during the twelve year truce, and the Netherlands were making the most of it. At this time Amsterdam was famous for its diamonds and jewelers, as well as its shipping lines. The people were different from the English in many ways, Bradford speaks of them saying "[we] heard a strange and uncouth language, and beheld the different manners and customs of the people, with their strange fashions and attires; all so far differing from that of [our] plain country villages (wherein [we were] bred and had so long lived) as it seemed they were come unto a new world."

...Strange. That seems to be an adjective Bradford uses allot. Maybe its similar to the way everyone say "like" in our own times, but I digress. Bradford certainly had an excuse to think the Netherlanders attire "strange" because it was the custom of many to wear wooden shoes, called clogs, or klompen.

...Despite the richness of their new environment the Puritans had a difficult time. They were no longer persecuted for their strict beliefs, but a new enemy reared its ugly head. Poverty.Bradford describes it this way.

..."Although they saw fair and beautiful cities, flowing with an abundance of all sorts of wealth and riches, yet it was not long before they saw the grim and grisly face of poverty coming upon them like an armed man, with whom they must buckle and encounter, and from whom they could not fly. But they were armed with faith and patience against him and all his encounters; and though they were sometimes foiled, yet by God's assistance they prevailed and got the victory." William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, Chapter 3.

...Though Bradford confidently asserts the congregations trust in God, and their victory, which only proves the resilience and strength of their faith, the road was never easy. We shall see later in the chapter how quickly they were overtaken with need and want again when the truce was nigh ending.

...Hoping for better circumstances in Leyden, the congregation moved. Leydon does not have a port like Amsterdam, and for awhile it was even more difficult there. But, being here established, they made a go of it and ended up making a "hard but competent living, but with hard and continual labour." And for eleven years this continued under the "able ministry of and prudent government of Mr. John Robinson and Mr. William Brewster".

...Others, from England and other places, began to flock to the Separatists "camp" of operations until they grew into what Bradford calls a "great congregation". (The exact number is not listed) Bradford comments on the deep love and communion between the members of the congregation, so deep that they scarcely ever had problems, and, even if they did, it was "nipped in the head" restoring peace. Occasionally there were times when "the church purged off those that were incurable and incorrigible, when, after much patience used, no other means would serve." I would dearly love to know what made these people incurable and incorrigible, but Bradford does not list there actual offenses. It is very possible that they were those who wished to take up new occupations elsewhere, and otherwise assimilate with Dutch culture as these are eventually the concerns that send the congregation to New England's shores.

...Several paragraphs in the middle of the chapter are devoted to praising the love and care Mr. Robinson and Mr. Brewster gave to their adoring congregation. Bradford is not scanty in allegories or praising words, comparing the fellowship to the Roman days under Marcus Aurelius when "it was hard to judge whether he delighted more in having such a people, or they in having such a pastor [emperor]". (Not that he was praising the Romans, merely drawing a comparison between their love for their emperor and the Scrooge congregations love for their pastor.)

...He then says he knows he can say without prejudice that "such was the true piety, the humble zeal and fervent love of this people towards God and His ways ........that they came as near the primitive pattern of the first churches as any other church of these later times have done." I think this is quite a claim and definitely somewhat biased, every man thinks his church the best I say. No doubt Geneva folk thought their congregation the most "first churchly", but I digress.

...Apparently, in later times, some dirt was cast across the congregations reputation while living in Leydon. Bradford claims this is the work of "some of their adversary's" and sets out to repudiate the claims.

...Slander #1. The pilgrims are leaving Holland so that country must be kicking them out! (Re-worded by me of course)

...Slander #2. The pilgrims are not leaving of their own accord, they must have done something to make the country "weary" of them. (These are both basically saying the same thing, and both are re-worded by me)

...To finish the chapter Bradford sets out to "mention a particular or two to show the contrary" which particular or two take up 2 1/2 pages. Firstly he reminds everybody that though the pilgrims were poor, none of the Dutch hesitated to lend them money and assistance - knowing that they were careful to keep their word and fulfill their debts. The Dutch even sought out the foreigners to employ above others because of their reputation for honesty and diligence. Also in that time their were many disputes at the university of Leyden primarily because of Arminian controversies. Mr. Robinson, was invited to refute these heresies at the university and did so with such thoroughness that the public adored him. And, when it became known that the Puritans were going to set out for the New World, there were many who desired and offered them money to settle in New Netherland - instead of New England. But the Scrooby congregation was English to the core and did not want to lose their identity as such, which will be shown in the next chapter review.

5. Hardship and and continual labor. The Puritans were poor, so poor Bradford makes it sound like they could barely keep themselves from starving. Yet they worked, and they fought, for what they believed to be right, trusting that God would reward them in due season.

..."For he who sows to his flesh will of the flesh reap corruption, but he who sows to the Spirit will of the Spirit reap everlasting life. And let us not grow weary while doing good, for in due season we shall reap if we do not lose heart. Therefore, as we have opportunity, let us do good to all, especially to those who are of the household of faith." Galatians 6:9-10 New King James Version

...Deny your flesh! As Christians we must often take the hard road, the less traveled road with thorns and briers. Did not Christ say "take up your cross and follow me?" It would have been so easy for the Puritans to ignore their conscience, to adapt to the way of things in England. (And I'm not saying who was right or wrong in the Separatist issues of the time, merely pointing out that we should always listen to conscience) But in the renowned words of Martin Luther in his speech at the Diet of Worms, "It is neither safe nor honest to go act contrary to conscience!" They could not but choose to adhere to the word of God which had captured their minds and held possession of their conscience, we should see that we do likewise.

...Also, they trusted that God, who sees all things, would reward them in due time. And He did. He blessed them with a country to worship freely, a chance for new beginnings with their children. ( Some notable descendants of the Pilgrims include; Noah Webster, Sarah Davis, the Wright Brothers, George B. MClellan, Henry Wadsworth Longsfellow, Katherine Hepburn, Benjamin Harris Brewster, Clint Eastwood, Sarah Palin, Jennifer, Calvin, Robert, Johanna, and Rebecca Martinez - and other respectables too numerous to count)

...The lesson for us here? Lay down our wills on the altar of self-sacrifice and live for the glory of God! We exist for something bigger than ourselves, bigger than our own comfort, bigger than our own natures. We exist to love, enjoy, obey, and glorify our Creator. I will tell you a secret the Pilgrims knew, the only true lasting pleasure we can have in this life is to be at one with the will of God. Find your happiness in His will for your life, and live it to the fullest. Lets hold nothing back for later so that at the end of this race we may hear Him say "well done my good and faithful servant".

6. Less "funny" for this section, than controversial, is the subject of Jacob Arminius, a professor of theology at the University of Leyden from 1603 to his death in 1609. Arminius, as his name suggests, was the Father of Arminianism. At the time his followers called themselves Remonstrants and in 1618 were named heretics by the Synod of Dort. Understanding that this topic is far too weighty a matter to list here, the main differences between Remonstrants and Calvinists (including our pilgrims), were as follows.

...Here are the five points of Calvinism confirmed at the Synod of Dort;

1. Total Inability or Total Depravity

2. Unconditional Election

3. Particular Redemption or Limited Atonement

4. The Efficacious Call of the Spirit or
Irresistible Grace

5. Perseverance of the Saints

...For the sake of brevity I am not going to defend, define, or support the above, simply leave them as they are trusting that my reader has a sufficient understanding of what they mean to be able to spot the major differences in the five Armenian points listed below.

1. Free-Will or Human Ability

2. Conditional Election

3. Universal Redemption or General Atonement

4. The Holy Spirit Can Be Effectually Resisted

5. Falling from Grace

... The Pilgrims, ascribing to the Calvinist view, were very concerned about the Armenian controversies. Bradford tells how zealous Mr. Robinson was to discover the truth, that "though he taught thrice a week [lecturing his own congregation] himself, and wrote sundry books besides his manifold pains otherwise, yet he went constantly to hear their readings and heard the one as well as the other [Dutch Calvinist professors of theology and Armenian]; by which means he was so well grounded in the controversy and saw the force of all their arguments and knew the shifts of the adversary."

...Know your opponent, whoever he may be. If we hope to discover truth from Gods Word we must not come to it with our own conclusions in mind already, we must come to it to see what it says. The pilgrims studied the argument and came to convictions from their observations in Gods word. This is an attitude we should all have in arguments of today. If we hope to win souls to our side, or convict fellow Christians of erroneous doctrine, we cannot climb a hill and shout down at them our opinions! We must go to the word of God, study both sides and how to best communicate our position once we are certain we have come to a proper understanding of the doctrine, and guard ourselves against pride.

...Anyhow, this concludes the "orange" section. Rather scattered with no particular destination in mind - it merely serves to point out some of the controversy's then which are still controversy's today.

7. Next review, the dangers and causes for the Pilgrims decision to leave the Netherlands. A New World is in sight!

Chapter 2; "Of their Departure into Holland and their Troubles thereabout, with some of the many Difficulties they found and met withal." 1608

2009-09-23T12:34:00.008-05:00

1. This is a short chapter, only four pages, and will receive a short review. As its title denotes, the Puritans are about to leave fair England for the wetter clime of Holland. This was easier said than done, in England and indeed most countries of the time a special license was required to "legally" leave the country and travel abroad. At the time licenses were hard to obtain by Roman Catholics and dissenters. England did not want her dissatisfied citizens stirring up trouble in rival countries. ...After a failed attempt to flee in 1607, the Scrooby congregation "gat" over to Amsterdam in 1608.

...Historically readers should be aware that the Netherlands had just declared themselves the "United Republic of the Netherlands", asserting their independence from Spain. The fighting over this independence lasted eighty years, from 1568 - 1648. (The war was being fought mainly over freedom of religion, the Netherlands were majority Calvinists while Spain was a Catholic country; and Phillip II of Spain wanted to crush the Protestants in his empire.) At the time of the Puritans emigration to Holland the "Twelve Years Truce" had been enacted, due to expire in 1621. To read more about the Netherlands fight for independence go here, and here.

2. Terms Defined

A."Gat"; in Bradford's time this meant "get" or "got". Wouldn't it be funny if people still used "gat" today? "Gat Milk? anybody?" Whats a Gat's milk mommy? Have you ever heard of a Gat? What about a Hoo?

B."Scrooby"; not a distant relative of Ebenezer Scrooge. Scrooby is the name of a small village in the English county of Nottinhmshire. The Puritan congregation from Scrooby was consequently called the Scrooby congregation.

3. Now for the facts. With the increasing hostility in England the Separatists resolved to make their way, if at all possible, to the Netherlands. This was easier dreamed up than done. For many of the Separatists it was too impossible a task to be undertaken, they had young and old, nursing mothers, and sick, to care for. But for some, a young William Bradford among them, it was a goal worth fighting for. The Pilgrims evidenced the same spirit of determination that the pioneers of Americas untamed prairies did when the set out in their little prairie "schooners" navigating the unknown seas of waving grass. Out there, somewhere, was a better life for them and their children. And the Puritans would not give up.

...Unable to obtain "legal" documents permitting them to leave the country, the Separatists decided to use less than legal means. They resorted to bribery. Yes, it is true, our sterling examples of human piety, were not above underhand means to achieve their ends. However even this was not a sure way of smuggling out. On numerous occasions, and Bradford only mentions a few, the bribed sailors turned them in for rewards, or deserted them and their goods at the last moment when discovery was eminent. Once a large group of the Separatists with woman and children were boarding a Dutchman's ship when soldiers arrived. Thus far only the men had boarded, with the women, children, and goods on shore. When the sailors saw the approaching cavalry they set sail, leaving the rest behind. Few people could swim in those days and the poor fathers and husbands were only able to watch helplessly as the woman were arrested on shore, themselves being rushed off without a coin to feed them when they arrived at their destinations! Bradford does not relate the end of the matter, besides that the woman and remaining men were eventually set free, and we are left hoping that the families were eventually reunited.

...In the end, "with no small rejoicing", the whole of them "gat" over a little at a time, no doubt smuggled in small batches. The number totaled about 125.

...4. Here is a quote of Bradford's from the end of the chapter which, if nothing else, shows the steadfast faith of Bradford in trusting God despite the circumstances to work His sovereign will for the good of those who love and trust in Him.

..."I will omit the rest, though I might relate many other notable passages and troubles which they endured and underwent in these their wanderings and travels both at land and sea; but I haste to other things. Yet I may not omit the fruit that came hereby, for by these so public troubles in so many eminent places their cause became famous and occasioned many to look into the same, and their godly carriage and Christian behavior was such as left a deep impression in the minds of many. And though some few shrunk few shrank at these first conflicts and sharp beginnings (as it was no marvel) yet many more came on with fresh courage and greatly animated others." William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, Chapter 2.

...This is the same experience the martyrs of the coliseums in Rome experienced. The more died, the more were converted. The more Christians were persecuted, the more the faith spread. The blood of martyred Christians waters the seeds of faith their faithful witness, even to death, planted. The enemies of the church employ their weapon of persecution thinking to discourage and quench the fire of truth, but God turns it all on head making it a tool to bring many more to Him as truth is broadcast-ed through their very endeavors!

...5. This chapter being so short, and so sorrowful, there really isn't anything worth listing in this section. One can hardly object to the record of a sea voyage, or tales of woe.

...6. Next time; life in the Low Countries.

Chapter 1 ; On the "Separatist Interpretation of the Reformation in England", 1550-1607

2009-09-16T19:30:00.009-05:00

...1.Thus begins chapter one in Bradford's Diary. These diary entries are recorded long after the events they attempt to explain. Bradford begins with an explanation, he wants to immortalize the reasons the Puritans left England for Holland, and eventually the New World. In his own words - "Of Plymouth Plantation. And first of the occasion and inducements thereunto; the which, that I may truly unfold, I must begin at the very root and rise of the same. The which I shall endeavour to manifest in a plain style, with singular regard unto the simple truth in all things; at least as near as my slender judgment can attain to the same."

...Phew, If Bradford's judgment is "slender" then I dare not wonder what my margin will be.

...The time frame in which he wrote these words is roughly 1630 A.D. But the events he is writing about happened nearly eighty years before, long before William Bradford was born. He begins with mention of the reformation, persecution under Bloody Mary, and in general the "Separatist Interpretation of the Reformation in England", the chapter title.

...2. Define your Terms!

...A. Separatist; NOT a person with a vendetta against fat in their creamer. This term actually means " one of a group of 16th and 17th century English Protestants preferring to separate from rather than to reform the Church of England." Webster Dictionary

...B. Saint; "Bradford uses the word saint in the Biblical sense, as one of God's chosen people, or a church member, not one of those canonized by the Roman Catholic Church" Samuel Morison.

...C. Professor; You're probably thinking a teacher at college or something, but this term was actually used by the Puritans in general to mean one who professed Christianity.

...3. What exactly happened in this chapter? I know that's sort of what I was thinking half way through, after all, it doesn't bring us up to date with anything happening to the Puritans now. (Which was then) In reality this is a very important chapter. It explains the reformations roots in England, why it started, and how it grew. Interestingly enough Bradford does not being with pointing fingers, nor does he begin with exact dates and facts. He begins with a very biblical form, explaining still without names, the persecution and terrors the gospel and its followers endure during these hard times.

..."Ever since the first breaking out of the light of the gospel in our honourable nation of England, what wars and oppositions ever since, Satan hath raised, maintained and continued against the Saints, from time to time, in one sort or other." William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, Chapter 1.

...He goes on to compare the modern saints with martyrs of old, during the time of the Roman emperors, and mentions the bloody Arian controversies; quoting Socrates Ecclesiastical History to back up the comparison. Then, in one breathtaking sweep, he pulls the cloud of ambiguity away from our eyes revealing a name, a time placement. Bloody Mary. Yet he does not criticize Mary herself. Perhaps he will in some later chapter, but here he merely points out that Satan sought whatever and whoever he could as tools to accomplish his age old labor, to destroy the true church of God. Bradford also mentions that the Prince of Darkness tactics have changed, instead of seeking to utterly annihilate the church, he has chosen in these days subtler tactics. Hear Ye, Hear Ye, this following quote of Bradford's is no less valuable to us today, if not more so!

..."When as that old serpent could not prevail by those fiery flames and other his cruel tragedies, which by his instruments he put into practice everywhere in the days of Queen Mary and before, he then began another kind of war and went more closely to work; not only to oppugn but even to ruinate and destroy the kingdom of Christ by more secret and subtle means, by kindling the flames of contention and sowing the seeds of discord and bitter enmity amongst the professors and, seeming reformed, themselves." William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, Chapter 1

...Truly we should lend ear to this warning. Now we know when Satan switched his tactics !(at least according to Bradford) But I'll leave this for section 4.

...Onward into the meatier portions of this chapter! We now come to mention of Mr. Fox, renowned as the man who wrote Fox's Book of Martyrs. It is always interesting to read contemporaries comment on each other! Bradford begins to list the grievances Christianity is suffering from, namely, discord over the order of worship.To paraphrase his words "One side" labored to have right worship of God in church, simple, no service books, strict adherence to the listed customs in Scripture, and keeping only the offices of Pastors, Teachers, Elders, etc. (We must I assume he forgot to mention the first ban on electric guitars being used in worship, no wait, they weren't invented yet. )

...The Catholic, or rather, "Anglican Church of England", basically the Roman Catholic Church under new government and with some minor adjustments, "Through many colors and pretences" went on to oppose the Separatists, or Puritans as they came to be called. Eventually they began to bring false charges of "rebellion and high treason" concerning the Puritans, hoping to get the attention of the Monarchy. Persecution was hot in many places.

...It appears the Puritans waited out the tide for awhile, hoping. But when Queen Mary died the contention did not. Bradford explains that many Puritans who had fled under Bloody Mary, now "returning into England under gracious Queen Elizabeth" received promotions and the like, and were for a time in favor. Then, of course, jealousy arose. Plots and devices were used to paint the Puritans in a bad light and the Queen and State were aroused. Indeed, it is not crystal clear in the text when these plots truly affected the Puritans, but they almost certainly did so increasingly after Elizabeth's reign, during James I.

...As with Mary, Bradford's personal opinion concerning Elizabeth herself is withheld. I find it interesting that he does not lay blame on either queen, very gracefully mentioning the pressure and plots laid around them. Was this a biblical conviction concerning speaking against the authorities that God had put in place? It certainly wasn't a custom of the time, Knox's thundering treatise titled "The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women" had been published scarcely a century before. It leaves one to wonder. However he does give Elizabeth the title "gracious", unlike Mary.

...Apparently the Anglican church's ploy was to keep certain "divers harmless ceremonies" to win the weak and superstitious, for "though it were to be wished that divers things were reformed, yet this was not the season for it." At length more and more corruption crept back into the church, according to Bradford, until zealous Christians began to be persecuted once more. During time of James I, things had become intolerable. As a last resort the true professors "shook off this yoke of antichristian bondage" and made a covenant to be a people set apart. Thus begins the history of the pilgrims that sailed in the Mayflower and landed on Americas soil. But before setting out for such a distant shore, they set their sights on a place closer to home, Holland. Chapter one ends in the year 1607.

A picture of the house where William Bradford was born...

4. "When as that old serpent could not prevail by those fiery flames and other his cruel tragedies, which by his instruments he put into practice everywhere in the days of Queen Mary and before, he then began another kind of war and went more closely to work; not only to oppugn but even to ruinate and destroy the kingdom of Christ by more secret and subtle means, by kindling the flames of contention and sowing the seeds of discord and bitter enmity amongst the professors and, seeming reformed, themselves." William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, Chapter 1

...The following verse from 1 Peter comes to mind, "Be sober, be vigilant; because your adversary the devil walks about like a roaring lion, seeking whom he may devour. Resist him, steadfast in the faith, knowing that the same sufferings are experienced by your brotherhood in the world. " 1 Peter 5:8-9 The enemy NEVER rests, he wants the church to fall. He wants Christs blood to be poured out in vain, he cannot accept defeat. The Prince of darkness refuses to see that God has already won the victory, that all the Lords purposes will come to pass.

...With this in mind it is ever important that we set a guard over our hearts, and watch carefully the road beneath our feet. In these days, as in the time of the Puritans, it would appear that the deadliest weapons in Satan's arsenal are; divisions and dissensions within the church; and the temptation of an "easier" walk with God.

...I'm not saying we should allow heresies in the church for the sake of peace, but it is a fact that ever since the reformation the church has become increasingly divided with different factors warring among themselves. What warrants leaving a fellowship of believers or breaking off into new church bodies? When do we gracefully shrug something off as simply the conviction of a 'weaker' brother, but not worth splitting over? These are grave questions we must all ask ourselves as we prayerfully seek to walk in the fullness of the gospel and maintain the peace and purity of the people of God. I don't pretend to have any of the answers, I'm just asking questions.

...The second matter of importance is the temptation of an "easier" or "worldier" walk with the King of Kings. God doesn't want us to come half way to the cross. He isn't seeking lukewarm lovers, He wants a bride wholly committed to Him. We are a church of sinners, that's why we're in the church, we recognize our need for the Savior. It is not possible for us to earn our own salvation, or be perfect, but we are called to "be holy" as He is holy, and to advance in our stages of sanctification. The christian walk begins at conversion, but it doesn't end there.

...Its so easy to say with our mouth, "There but by the grace of God", and then turn around and abuse the grace we proclaim. Remember Romans 6:1-4, "What shall we say then? Shall we continue in sin that grace may abound? Certainly not! How shall we who died to sin live any longer in it? Or do you not know that as many of us as were baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into His death? Therefore we were buried with Him through baptism into death, that just as Christ was raised from the dead by the glory of the Father, even so we also should walk in newness of life." I think this is what the Puritans were trying to do, "Walk in the newness of life."

...Later on in the chapter Bradford states "[the Anglicans bringing many excuses] to stop the mouths of the more godly, to bring them on to yield to one ceremony after another, and one corruption after another; by these wiles beguiling some and corrupting others till at length they began to persecute all the zealous professors in the land both by word and deed, if they would not submit to their ceremonies and become slaves to them and their popish trash, which have no ground in the Word of God, but are relics of that man of sin." William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, Chapter 1

...Relics of that man of sin. What is Bradford referring to? Here are the next couple verses from our passage in Romans, "For if we have been united together in the likeness of His death, certainly we also shall be in the likeness of His resurrection, knowing this, that our old man was crucified with Him, that the body of sin might be done away with, that we should no longer be slaves of sin. " Romans 6: 5-6

...And what is Bradford talking about? The extra biblical practices used in worship by the church at large then. The Puritans wanted a clean break from Catholicism, and they went to great ends to ensure it. This brings up another question; what practices did the Puritans preach and or maintain that were extra biblical? Though I believe their hearts were in the right place, it was hard to completely reform the church with such controversies going on at the time. For example, the Puritans adamantly opposed the theater, which in these days might equate to going to the movies. Why? Mainly because at the time many of the plays were about immorality, or encouraged inappropriate behavior. (Most not all) But no where in Scripture does it say that we are not allowed to act, or go to dramas. We are commanded to guard our eyes and hearts, which would mean reading movie reviews and asking ourselves if the entertainment would be profitable. But the Puritans called all drama wrong. And it was more than a conviction, it was a teaching.

...Is this right? Should the church elders be allowed to decide what is right and wrong for their members outside the evident commands in Scripture? How much Christian liberty would we have today if every time someone wanted to watch a movie, (a good movie), they were ostracized by the church?

...So we see the Puritans weren't perfect. Their stance on drama was just one of the more legalistic approaches they took in their day which helped to raise hard feelings against them, and ended up possibly doing more harm than good to the body of God.

...To end I think we can sum things up like this. What can we learn from the Puritans example? Our innocence and purity in the ways of the world are priceless and to be holy and bring glory to God is of utmost importance. But human dogmatism and pride can get in the way of holy ambition. Fear is another corrupter of faithful works that brings out the worst in us. We need to remain diligent and awake, carefully searching the Scriptures as the Bereans did, neither living in sin or stifling each others walk with extra biblical requirements. (whether "popish" or "puritanical") Beware the enemy!

5. Apparently Bradford had a rather "English" biased view of the reformations history! I came across this quote on the first page and had to do three double takes to determine if he had just said what I thought he said!

..."It is well known unto the godly and judicious, how ever since the first breaking out of the light of the gospel in or honorable nation of England, (which was the first of nations whom the Lord adorned therewith after the gross darkness of popery which had covered and overspread the Christian world), what wars and oppositions ever since, Satan hath raised, maintained and continued against the Saints..." William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, Chapter 1

...Correct me if I'm wrong, but, wasn't Germany the first nation for the light of the true gospel to break upon? He can't be talking about government, that I would understand, because he stated in the first part of the sentence the "light of the gospel", which is what the Lord supposedly first adorned England with! These things are funny....To me anyways.

6. Thanks for bearing with me in this long, somewhat tedious, post! Next time I'm going to keep things a little more succinct, as we enter the arena of "Holland"!

The Layout

2009-09-16T18:56:00.002-05:00

...To keep things simple for readers I am going to attempt to follow the same layout every post. As follows;

1. This section will introduce the chapters title, time frame, and introductory notes. It may even include some historical background of interest. As evident by the color, this section will be BLUE.

2. Very important! This part is devoted entirely to defining terms that may, or may not, come up. Enjoy! (Color Key, RED)

3. The BLACK and white of things. Section three will contain actual facts, quotes, and key points in the chapter.

4. Here I will preach at you, or root for you, which ever you prefer, trying to hone in on the moral dilemmas, valuable lessons to be gleaned, and touch on the Puritans examples; whether good or ill. I'm running out of colors, so PURPLE will alert you when its time to rebury the old man - he has a way of popping up and making us look proud doesn't he?

5. The funnies and interesting little tidbits aside from the big picture. Here you can laugh, or debate, all you want. If you prefer the original spelling of burden, burthen, and resent the change, you can quibble about it here. (Along with Honour instead of Honor, Powre instead of Pour, and so on...) Also included will be the inevitable rabbit trails such as, but not limited to, Bradford's opinions on rulers and governments. (Color key, ORANGE. A good protestant color.)

6. And finally we come to section six. It can be summed up in two very succinct words; SNEAK PEAK. Color key? Do we really need one? This section will be ITALICIZED.

...The numbers will also be included for even better reference. Can you tell I'm worried my readers might drown in the pool of verbalization? or get lost in the trees of redundant repetition? Beware!

2009-09-16T15:56:00.001-05:00

...Yesterday I started reading William Bradford's history of Plymouth Plantation. During study time I had a great idea, why not make an online series of notes on the diary?

..."Of Plymouth Plantation" is a rare firsthand account of the struggles and victories one little band of faithful pilgrims endured in the arduous journey from persecution to freedom. It is full of insights into our roots, sacrifices every faithful christian should stand for, and miraculous escapes from the very maws of death. William Bradford began penning the diary after the Mayflower landed on Massachusetts shore and continued to write after the fact, covering time from 1620 - 1647 A.D. Anyone wanting to understand this godly man and the puritans of New England should not skip this book! (Despite its often archaic prose, spelling, and impressive size!)

...Included will be juicy little tidbits like the following;

...Bradford's opinions concerning "gracious Queen Elizabeth", to use his own words.

...The state of England's reformation at the time, compared to Scotland, Geneva, France, and the Netherlands.

...Good old Puritan common sense!

...Be checking for more in the next couple days!

William I, the Silent Father of the United Republic of the Netherlands

2009-07-02T14:49:00.006-05:00

A man ahead of his time and a ruler of unusual discretion and judgment; William I, called The Silent, and Prince of Orange, was the founding Father of the Netherlands. His influence in establishing the Low Lands as a Republic can be likened to that of George Washington in the United States. His life is one of excitement, mixed loyalties, betrayals, and passion.

William was born in the year 1553, to a noble family living in Dillenburg Germany. His parents were Lutherans and raised young William, along with his eleven younger siblings, in the reformed faith. An aunt in France owned the estates of Orange and when she died childless William inherited the lands and the title “Prince of Orange”. There was just one catch, the will stipulated that William must become Catholic to receive his inheritance. At about this time the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V took a liking to William, that is, to everything but Williams Protestantism. Probably due to purely political reasons young William renounced his faith and became a member of the Catholic Church. But he never forgot the teachings of his childhood.

Charles V depended on William for everything. It is said that when the old emperor abdicated the throne in favor of his son Phillip II in 1556, he leaned his aging frame upon Williams’s strong arm. Charles had tried to discourage Protestantism in his empire, including the Netherlands. Phillip wanted to eradicate the heretics from the face of the earth.

William lost much of his influence in court when Charles resigned. Philip was suspicious of Williams loyalties and rarely kept him informed in matters of state. In 1559 Phillip appointed William Stadholder in the Netherland provinces Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, and Burgundy. Perhaps it was here and now that Williams’s sympathies for the Protestant cause became to emerge. Phillips cruelties and the independent spirit of the Netherlanders were clashing during Williams rule. Finally William could take no more, in 1567 he retreated to his lands in Naussa France to pray and rethink his loyalties. Meanwhile Phillip raised a Spanish army to crush the heretics in the Low Lands.

Like a determined tide William returned in 1568 to take up the cause of religious freedom in the Netherlands. He raised an army and challenged Phillip, who must have felt vindicated in his former suspicions. Time after time the Netherlanders were beaten, but, the country itself was on their side.

The Netherlands is a country wrested from the sea. Patiently the Dutch people toiled to raise dikes and build farms in the low lying countryside. During the eighty year war for independence William advised the people to pull down their dikes and let the sea in. Homes and dikes could be rebuilt but the loss of their childrens future liberty could not be repaid. So the people let the sea fight their battles, and indeed, it was on the sea that the Dutch could not be bested. They were called the “Beggars of the Sea” and their navies were a threat the Spanish could not reckon with. Gradually the Spanish were driven back.

In 1579 William the Silent and the representatives of seven Northern provinces signed the Union of Utrecht, a compact which bound them together for better or worse. Despite his love for the Protestant cause William insisted that religious freedom be given to Catholics as well as Protestants within the new Republic. He was a man ahead of times, realizing that neither faith was going to go away – the problem of conscience was here to stay.

Phillip did not realize this important idea. He was stuck in the past of Christendom, believing like so many that the Catholic Church meant a church headed by the authority of Rome instead of a catholic body of believers in many countries with many beliefs but one head, Jesus Christ as revealed in Holy Scripture. In 1581 Phillip put a price on Williams head, 25,000 guilders. A Frenchman named Balthasar Gerard took up the challenge, and, in 1584, put a bullet through Williams chest. The last words of the Father of the Fatherland were “My God, have pity on my soul. My God, have pity on this poor people.” The Champion of the Netherlands was dead.

A Brief History of the Netherlands; 1100-1600 A.D.

2009-07-01T15:04:00.004-05:00

The history of the Netherlands is an intriguing one. Its unique geography, location, and political state combined to create the first modern Republic. Lets quickly overview some of the major events that took place between 1100 and 1600 A.D. in the Netherlands and see how they impacted this truly amazing country.

During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the Netherlands, or Low Lands as they are often called, developed a keen interest in trade. The people were hard working and industrious, reclaiming much of their land from the wild North Sea by means of dikes and dams. They fished and built ships for other countries, and then became interested in shipping and importing textiles. Quickly the cities grew fat with profit and began to question their nobles authority over them. Many cities became city states and were given the right to have defensible walls, markets, toll rights, storage rights (the right to store and exclusively trade particular goods), and mint rights. The inhabitants of cities were not subject to liegelords and had more personal freedom than country folk concerning travel and the choice of religion.

Then, in 1517, a small paper nailed to a church door in Germany by a monk called Martin Luther sparked a religious reformation that impacted the Netherlands cataclysmically. The Protestant Reformation was just that, a protest against the Catholic church’s teaching and a call for reformation in Church doctrine. This coincided nicely with the growing resentment the Netherlands had against their foreign overlords – who were Catholic. In the early sixteenth century Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, was handed control of the Netherlands by the Dukes of Bourgogne. He in turn passed it to his son Phillip II of Spain. By this time the majority of the Netherlands were Protestants, more than that, they were Calvinist Protestants.

Phillip wanted to wipe out the Protestants in his domain, and the Netherlanders had already been insubordinate to him by spreading anti-catholic riots in their country during 1566. The monarch sent Spanish troops in 1568 to squelch the stocky Dutch. The eighty year war for independence which lasted until 1648 had begun.

Here one of my personal favorite military leaders enters the action, William I, Prince of Orange, also called William the Silent. The Prince of Orange was born in Germany and eventually, through many lines of successions and unintelligible twists in royal family trees (latin to the uninitiated), he became Stadholder in the provinces of provinces of Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht. I could write a book about William I, but it will need to wait for my next paper. The Prince was a loyal Protestant and abhorred the atrocities committed against the reformers in the Low Lands under Phillip II. He rallied the country behind him and engaged in war to defend and liberate the Low Lands from foreign interference. The Southern provinces (Belgium today) eventually returned to Spanish rule, but the remaining seven Northern provinces formed the Union of Utrecht in 1579 pledging to uphold one another in the fight for freedom. On July 26, 1581, the Northern Provinces declared themselves free from Spain and formed what has come to be called “The Dutch Republic” or the Netherlands. This independence was finally recognized by the Spanish in 1648. The Golden Age of the Netherlands had dawned.

Germany's Politics and the Reformation

2009-06-03T15:42:00.004-05:00

In the early fifteen hundreds the Roman Catholic Church held immense influence over nations and their rulers. Until the Protestant Reformation Christians were exclusively Catholic. People believed there was no salvation outside the Roman Catholic Church and feared excommunication by the Pope in Rome. Because of this rulers were hesitant to make decisions without the Popes approval. It was their eternal soul at stake! In Germany however, unique political conditions were ripe for change.

Germany was divided into many territories called "Duchies". Each Duchy had its own prince or Duke as ruler. Over all the duchies presided the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. Many rulers resented Romes control over their civil duties and the German rulers were no exception. And added to the Popes influence, German Duchies had to worry about Charles V. All these things came into play when a monk named Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the church door in Wittenburg on October 31, 1517.

Political power and economics greatly influenced the success of the Reformations beginning. Dukes and Princes saw it as an opportunity to break away from Rome, both Emperor and Pope. The common people were eager to follow their princes because they no longer feared excommunication, salvation by faith alone had captured their hearts. ( And the Reformation encouraged the value of individuals before God, peasants too were a priesthood of believers.) Germany became a hotbed of action as wars and treaties came and went. Through it all the divided and distinct duchies were important in allowing the reformed faith to grow. When one duchy declared itself Protestant, the reformers fled there. If a duchy wavered or clung to Catholicism, Catholics migrated to that area. As the Reformation spread "Nationalism also played a part as countries turned Protestant while fighting to be free from Roman Catholic Countries." Streams of Civilization Vol 1, pg 377. The world was a sorry mess. Neither side is blameless in the bloodbaths that took place.

But, through it all we can see clearly Gods hand at work. Because of Germany's political state Luther's convictions were given time to develop and grow. Soon other nations took interest and the issues spread.In 1555 the "Peace of Augsburg" ended fighting in Germany when the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V signed a treaty allowing each ruler to decide the faith of his subjects. In some ways this was little better than before because individuals were still often persecuted for their convictions. There was more freedom than before but the world was still a far cry from giving every man the right to choose his own religious beliefs based on conscience. But it was a step in the right direction.

Germany continued to uphold the peace treaty until 1806. It was a new concept of state sovereignty; also Duchies were separated by boundaries of faith and territory lines, a practice called Partition. The world was changing.

Three Cities: Tenochtitlan, London, and Madrid

2009-04-13T17:01:00.007-05:00

In 1520 Hernando Cortes and his conquistadors entered the capitol city of the Aztecs. It was huge, covering around 10 Kilometers of swampy land and boasting at least 200,000 inhabitants, more than most European cities of that time. A Spanish soldier called Bernal diaz del Castillo said the following about the city the conquistadors entered.

“	When we saw so many cities and villages built in the water and other great towns on dry land we were amazed and said that it was like the enchantments (...) on account of the great towers and cues and buildings rising from the water, and all built of masonry. And some of our soldiers even asked whether the things that we saw were not a dream? (...) I do not know how to describe it, seeing things as we did that had never been heard of or seen before, not even dreamed about.	”
—Bernal Díaz del Castillo, The Conquest of New Spain^[2]

Tenochtitlan

Fourteenth century Aztecs had reclaimed the land from the lake and built a city similar to Venice upon it. Most of the city could be traversed by canoe as well as on foot. The Aztecs called their city Tenochtitlan (tay-nohch-TEE-tlan), which translated means "the place of the cactus stone". In contrast to European cities of the time Tenochtitlan was meticulously clean, free of pestilence, and well organized. The following is a list with links for source reference concerning the Architectural and Hygienic advancements of Tenochtitlan compared to London and Madrid.

1. The Aztec Emperor employed 1,000 men to clean the streets every day. These were the historic forerunners of our modern day garbage men :) "Garbage boats" went from house to house carrying away refuse and human waste to be disposed of properly and put to good use as recycled crop fertilizer. Many Aztecs had their own private latrines, something

2. The Aztecs reclaimed land from the swamp by building "chinimpas" .

[Chinampas] were made by staking out narrow, rectangular strips in marshy lakes. Narrow canals were built between them for canoes to pass along.Each chinampa was built up with layers of thick water vegetation cut from the surface of the lake and mud from the bottom of the lake. They were piled up like mats to make the plots. Willow trees were planted around the edge of each chinampa to make it more secure. DK Eyewittnes Books: Aztecs, Incas, and Mayas.

Lake Texcoco had a depth of about 13 feet at its deepest part, which made the Chinampas possible.
The primary chinampas crops were maize , beans , squash , amaranth , tomatoes , and chilies , although chinampas were also used to grow flowers. Wikipedia The Aztecs also built houses on chinampa plots.

A modern day Chinampa plot...

3. Tenochtitlan had a fresh mountain water available to its citizens thanks to a dike built in 1453 A.D. which restrained the swampy marsh waters while keeping spring fed fresh water around the city. It also had two huge aqueduct's built of terra cotta which ran into the city. The Aztecs were crazy about cleanliness, all of its citizens, rich and poor, washed every day. This overall good hygiene eliminated most of the problems European cities were dealing with at the time, plague and pestilence.

London

London has its roots in ancient time. The Romans originally built it on the river Thames at around 50 A.D. It has been destroyed and rebuilt many times, and survives to this day as one of the most important city centers of the world. For this comparison we will be looking at London in the 1500 hundreds around the time Tenochtitlan was discovered by Europeans.

1. London had a poor sewage system for years. Human waste and garbage's of all descriptions were tossed out of windows onto passerby's heads. There were no indoor latrines and few hygiene precautions. Over time the Thames river became a "dead" river as a result to the extreme amounts of filth tossed into it.

2. Not only did London lack in the sewage department, its inhabitants were less then clean themselves. Most Europeans of the time thought that taking baths would wash away the body's protective covering and upset the humors. As a result people rarely bathed more than once a year. Outbreaks of plague, including the Black Death, and other diseases were common due to the peoples uncleanliness and living conditions.

3. It is no wonder that the Spaniards were amazed when they entered Tenochtitlan and found it contained more than 200,000 inhabitants, London itself did not have more than 75,000. Not only did the Aztec city have a larger population, they also maintained higher living standards which made for one bright beautiful city!

Madrid

Another large and growing city in Europe was Madrid. Originally a Muslim city Madrid was taken by Spain during the Holy Wars and became the capitol when Phillip II moved his court there in 1561. Today it is the 3rd most populous municipality in the European Union. Wikipedia

We can sum up for Madrid that it was essentially as advanced as London in the 1500dreds, possibly less. Its population was certainly smaller, being around 40,000 people.

When Phillip moved his court to Madrid in 1561 the city saw a huge increase in population which resulted in a shortage of living space and proper sewage. It has been called the filthiest city in Europe at that time.

In Conclusion:

This comparison has been conducted to show the differences of living standards between two cultures, European and Aztec /Mesoamerican. It does not reflect on their religious beliefs, nor should we base our opinions of a race on its citizens personal hygiene standards. However it does prove the Aztecs were more than a "savage" race, they had a supieror civilization and minds able to learn. Europeans razed a great city to the ground, and lost the advantages they might have had in sharing the gospel in their lust after gold. If anything the story of Tenochtitlan shows the depravity of a supposedly "enlightened" people, who used their Christianity as a cloak for vice and an excuse for enslaving others. It is a dark blot in the history of the Kingdom of God.

The End of the World

2009-02-12T12:59:00.003-06:00

...When the Roman Empire fell in 476 A.D, Christians and Pagans alike felt the tremble of its death throes. For centuries Christianity had suffered persecution from the Empire. Then under Constantine it had been elevated to the religion of Rome. Now, with barbarian hordes swarming the city, every Christian man and woman must have been asking the same question – why?

...Christianity was born in the Roman world. Because of Rome the gospel had spread hastily on sturdy roads in the universal Greek tongue. The world was one unified country; the Christians had felt the need to do the impossible task of raising Christianity to the highest circles of Rome’s society – without abandoning the masses in their simple faith. Every obstacle was overcome in time until Rome itself became the stable and unifying power of Christianity. What could not be accomplished with Rome at the Churches back? It was the fulfillment of a dream.

...Then the barbarians struck. The Empire was already weak – for centuries she had been spiraling downward with little hope of return to her former glory. She was spent, both politically and economically. Despite all of Diocletian and Constantine’s reforms the Empire could not withstand the nomadic push of spreading civilization. Christians watched in horror as “barbarian” people, uneducated in anything but war, took away the kingdom that had just become theirs. Was the blood of the martyrs wasted? What would become of Christianity now? Would they have to start all over again?

...Surely the verses from Thessalonians 5:2-3 came to mind, “For you yourselves know perfectly that the day of the Lord so comes as a thief in the night. For when they say, “Peace and safety!” then sudden destruction comes upon them, as labor pains upon a pregnant woman. And they shall not escape.” When Rome fell it was a terrible destruction – and probably felt like the end of the world. Rome had been the world’s peace and safety. For centuries Pax Romana had reigned in the lands.

..But in this as in all things God was accomplishing His will. When Rome fell it shook everyone to their core. No one could walk away unchanged. To the Pagan Roman it brought either despair which leads to death, or a renewed search for meaning which led them to Christ. For the Barbarian it offered the opportunity for civilization and most importantly their encounter with Christ; it is amazing how many Goths and Vandals responded to the power of the gospel – they too were hungry for spiritual food. The Christians themselves learned the hard lesson of faith in difficult circumstances, faith which many of them may have begun have in the Empire instead of Christ. The fall of Rome challenged them anew in their search for the souls of men and the establishment of a heavenly kingdom in the midst of earthly disorder.

The Women of Ancient Rome

2008-11-14T12:31:00.010-06:00

It can be difficult to dig and then come up with an accurate depiction of what life would be like for Roman women. Part of this is due, no doubt, to the lack of material written by the Roman women themselves. All of the books and histories we have from Ancient Roman times were written by men. Still, from what we can gather, whether it be from manuscripts or letters, histories or tombstones, the following are Roman women's lives.

"[Roman Women] were the fundamental instrument for the transmission of culture...it was their job to prepare their [children] to become cives romani ..." Ibid

This quote points out an important thing that was central to Roman women's lives in whatever station of life. They were not only the child bearers but the child raisers, and as such were extremely important in passing on Roman values about life, family, patriotism - you name it! In this we can see a stark contrast between the Greeks and the Romans; Greek men, and even the Greek government, took charge of the children and their education/upbringing from the earliest age possible. We have an extreme picture of this in Sparta. However in Rome, the mother was seen as an integral part of society. In the home and on the mothers laps future statesmen and rulers were created.

Although women did not have the right to vote in Ancient Rome, and although there were times of more or less legal restriction, in Rome we can see a pattern of family loyalty and respect which, when combined with Christianity's enabling power to love, can very well be described as what our country needs right now. Rome's women were in general expected to be quite, gentle, keepers of the home, chaste, obedient, and respectful to their husbands. They were encouraged to marry and have children, to contribute to society by raising the next generation of orators, lawyers, business men, and even emperors. While it is true that there are countless stories of adultery and abuse, marital problems and divorce, this is not because, as so many historians believe, women were oppressed and unhappy in a man centered world. It is because the Romans needed the Gospel and its power in their lives. The women needed more than duty, tradition, and social norm to spur them on in their womanly duties; they needed a devotion to Christ and the words of Paul to give them true purpose and desire for their homes. And the men needed Christs love for the church in their relationships with their wives.

After giving the subject some thought, I have decided to try and stay on the happier side of things. One hears so much about the horrors of Roman marriages, and the oppression of women's rights. It is time perhaps to take a look at the kinder side of things, the probable joy and contentment found by many of the Roman women of those Ancient times in keeping their home and being a good wife. Unlike the majority of credited historians opinions, I choose to believe that their were more happy and fulfilled women in those days, than there are in the world today.

Roman women, it is true, had few legal rights. They did not have control over their own money, being considered to simple to manage such affairs, and they not allowed to vote. On a lighter, and perhaps even amusing note, they were not allowed in earlier times to drink wine. Yet despite these things it is possible for women to lead "happy" and "successful" lives. Below are listed some of the stations and roles which women inhabited in Roman society; included are the expectations and responsibilities they would have to fulfill.

Stations and Differences of Class

Noble Women:

Noble woman came from, well, noble families. They were often those who could trace lineage to one of Romes former consuls or Emperors either through blood or marriage. These women were society's elite and attended banquets, festivals, and great occasions with pomp. At the gladiatorial games they had the better seating at nearly ground level.

For all this however, they had very little distinguishing them from common Roman freed women; from the plebeians of the lower classes. Both were focused on the home, on being a good wife, on making their husbands successful, on bearing children, and on raising strong children - especially sons. How true the Latin saying rings, et genus et formam Regina Pecunia donatur. (Queen money brings both family and beauty)

There were several things which marked a difference between a noble women and free women. For one, Noble women usually tried to have more children than the lower class did. This was mostly because of the added pressure to provide an heir. Also the mortality rate of children was so high that even after having a son a noble women would want to have another lest the first die. It was common for only three children out of ten to survive childhood. Another thing that marked a difference between the classes was that on no account was a Noble woman to work outside of the home. It was considered highly improper and menial for the woman to help provide the families income, although in poorer families there was often little choice.

Some of the richer Roman women did run their own businesses and own property, especially towards the middle and end of the Empire. This was certainly not the norm but it did happen.

Free Women:

Free women were not nearly so confined as women of the patrician ranks. They often had to work alongside their husbands in many diverse forms of business out of necessity. There were no day cares and only some could afford to keep slaves, so the children had to learn to take care of themselves from an early age. Some of the outside occupations a free women might take on would be, maid work, hairdressing, escorts for wealthy women, laundering, and even field work. It all depended on where the women lived and what her particular talents might be.

Usually free women had less children than nobility. Allot of this was due to the inability for a family to support many children. It was in these poorer families that the practice of exposure was more common. Weak, sickly, and malformed babies, or unwanted females children, were left by the Father on the mountain side to die. The mother had no choice in the matter.

Slaves:

Now we have come to the bottom of Roman society. To be not only a women but a slave was probably as inferior a sphere as one could inhabit. Slaves were under the complete control of their masters whims and held few rights. They were not allowed to marry or vote, even in the mans case. Eventually under Romes better rulers laws were passed punishing the maltreatment of slaves, a master could even be tried for homicide if he killed one of his slaves. This seems pale in comparison however to what happened if a master was killed by a slave, if this happened all his household slaves, sometimes over a hundred, were put to death.

Under Nero slaves were given the ability to complain in court if they were mistreated. Antonius Pius ruled that if a slave was mistreated he could be freed. Children born to a slave woman who had once been free and then sold into captivity were allowed the status of a freeman/woman.

All in all, life as a woman slave could be hard and probably more servile than a mans. But this was not always so. Some women slaves had good mistresses and were eventually freed. When this happened they often had more ability to make their own decisions than their mistresses could.

Womanly Roles

Wife:

Roman wives were a defining feature of Roman society. They are renowned for their calmness, their loyalty, and their stoic acceptance of life. They were what made society go round. They rocked the cradles of all Romes greatest leaders, and had the ability to make or break the men in their lives. We have examples of women like Livia, the wife of Augustus Caesar; she was a women of great strength and trustworthiness whom her husband confided in. On the other hand we see Julia, Augustus daughter by a previous wife; a woman known for her scandalous behavior and the shame she brought her husband. A virtuous and faithful wife was highly sought in Rome; though this is somewhat ironic given the double standard when the husbands are considered.

Mother:

Roman Mothers were usually devoted to their children. If a woman had a son she might even give her wealth and dowry to further his interests. Daughters were taught all the things they needed to know to become a good wife and mother, from their mothers good example and careful training.

Despite the mothers great influence in her family, for good or evil, it was the father or Pater Familias who had legal control in all decision making. A mother could not save a child if the Pater Familias decided that he must die or be sold into slavery, whether at birth or even as an adult. The Pater Familias was the head of the "clan" so to speak, even when his sons were married and moved away he held jurisdiction over them. They could not make important decisions or even truly posses any wealth until their father died, then each of them became their own Pater Familias.

Daughter:

Daughters did not usually live in their fathers home long enough to play a very important role in household affairs. Because people died younger (40 - 50 was old) they married younger. A girl child's sole purpose in life was to learn all the she could from her mother about running a household and becoming a good wife. It was customary for girls to marry between the ages of twelve and fourteen, though in richer families they sometimes delayed marriage until later. The marriage was arranged by the father for social and monetary purposes, romance was rare and the couple frequently did not meet until their wedding day. Once married the father still had jurisdiction over his daughter and could even force her into a divorce if a bettor suitor came along. But the children belonged to their father and to his family.

Richer girls received higher education than poorer ones. Part of this is because Roman men did want compatible wives who could converse and understand his life. Despite this however a belief persisted that women had inferior minds and could not be expected to be truly intellectual or competent in anything other than the home.

Now that we have seen into the lives of Roman women is it possible to believe that they were happy and valued in the society they lived in?

This is a difficult question considering the little we know in general from actual women. But it is not only possible, but probable, that most Roman women led happy and content lives. Although they did not have as many "legal" rights as women, they did involve themselves in politics sometimes and it seems enjoyed doing so. Although they did not have control over many of the basic decisions concerning life which we have today; there is good reason to believe that most men were good husbands and their wives were at once respectable and valued. There is something elusively calling about the Roman Matrons role in society. Something which makes us want to take a second look at the sphere in which she lived. Who can say what Rome would be remembered as in our minds today if it had not been for those devoted, strong, and honest mothers and wives who placed their fingers in the hands of their men and gently altered the course of history? We may not have all their names in the history books. We may not have "speeches and discourses" from the women of Rome. And we may not know them the way we do Cicero, or Caeser, or Regulus.

There is one thing to be said though. We see Roman women in the lives of Roman husbands and sons. We see them when a boy grows up to become Romes first citizen. We see them when wars were stopped, when laws were changed, when books were written. They live in the accomplishments of the men they raised and nurtured. They were central and vital to the society they lived in, to the sphere they lived in, the home. Are you?

Emperors on Parade!

2008-11-10T15:34:00.004-06:00

...Here comes a parade of Emperors from Rome! Some, like Nero and Titus are well known to you. Others like Galba are perhaps not so well known. Nonetheless this parade is dedicated to bringing you into a closer acquaintance with Romes Emperors from 54-80 AD

...Nero; 54-68 AD

..Nero's float is lavishly decorated with magnificent mosaics featuring himself as a god. This Emperor is obviously greedy and grasping. He is known for his wasteful expenditure of public taxes on his own unparalleled palace - a building covered with gold. It has been reported by the writer Suetonius that when Nero's "golden house" was finally finished the emperor said "Good, now I can live like a human at last!"

..A sickening spectacle, almost to horrendous for us to describe, also adorns the side of Nero's float. Christians accused of starting fires in Rome and of being disruptor's of the peace, have been covered in tar and tied to poles. Nero is using them as human torches. It is said that he put these "human torches" all around his palace gardens while holding vast parties for Romes elite. ( As a side note, Nero was the last of the Augustinian emperors)

...Galba; 68-69 AD

..Emperor Galba had an extremely short reign, not even a year. I suppose this is why his float is so hastily thrown together. Even the ribbons look bedragled.

..Galba came to power through intrigue. You see, after Nero's death there was a scrabble for the throne. No one knew who should be emperor since Nero had been the last of the Augustinian line. 69 AD is known as the "Year of Four Emperors", with Galba as the first. Galba gained his position through bribing the Praetorian guard; in a few months the Praetorian guard grew tired of Galba and had him murdered. We will let his float pass on without further notice.

...Otho and Vitellius; 69 AD

..This is one mixed up float, it can't seem to make up its mind. Half of it is dedicated to Otho and the other half to Vitellius! It seems the people of Rome couldn't decide who should be their emperor.

..In the end Vitellius killed Otho in battle but ended up loosing his own life to Romes new choice, Vespacian.

...Vespasian; 69-79 AD

..Okay, this float is a little better. At least we know who its for.

..The Emperor Vespasian was a good choice for the Roman people as far as stability goes. He had two sons to continue the line when he died. We call this family the Flavian Dynasty. Vespasian was also a just and strong leader. During his reign many people were granted Roman citizenship and the great Colosseum began to be built.

...Titus; 79-81 AD

..Titus was a warlike man and his float clearly shows it. The side are lined with Roman shields and Jewish spoils. It was this Emperor who captured the city of Jerusalem and desecrated the temple. He brought back all the riches of the Jewish temple for his own building projects, gold marble, bronze, and precious jewels.

..During Titus rule the Colosseum begun by his father was finished. Titus also commissioned a great arch, called the Arch of Titus, which commemorates his victories over the Jews. It still stands today.

...Domitian; 81-96 AD

..Once again we detect signs of an arrogant and self seeking Emperor. Domitian was Titus' younger brother and the last of the Flavian Dynasty. His float is lavishly decorated but very unpopular with the people. looking around we see anger and rioting, the Roman Senators seem particularly displeased. The Praetorian guard walk along happily however, Domitian was their choice. Despite his guards protection though, Domitian was assassinated in 96 AD

...Nerva; 96-98 AD

..Nerva was the first Empera brought to office without the say of the Praetorian Guard. The people and the Senate had had enough of greedy and biased Emperors. This time they chose a humble Lawyer named Nerva who was known for honesty.

..Emperor Nerva respected the Senate and they appreciated him for it. He opened up the ability for men in other parts of the empire to become a part of the Roman Senate. In history he is known as the first of the "Five Good Emperors".

...Trajan; 98-117 AD

..Rising from the middle of Trajans float we can see a tall pillar called Trajans column. On it is celebrated the Emperors many victories in Romania and the Middle East. Under Trajan the empire reached its greatest extent.

...Hadrian; 117-138 AD

..Hadrian was the first non-Italian Emperor to rule Rome. He was adopted from Spain by Trajan to become his heir.

..His float is surrounded by a miniature replica of Hadrian's Wall, a massive building project in Britain and Germany. Hadrian was concerned over how large the Empire was when he came to office. How could he protect Rome's borders?

..After spending over half of his rule surveying Romes many provinces, Hadrian decided to let many of the territories go. He also built fortifications to keep Romes enemies out.

...Antonius Pius; 138-161 AD

..A large and sumptuous float approaches us next. Antonius Pius ruled Rome when she was at the height of her power. As we see the float draw closer we notice it is wobbling though. War is on the horizon as barbarian hordes gather distantly.

...Marcus Aurelius; 161-180 AD

..Marcus Aurelius was by necessity a warrior. He had to be a strong and active leader for his people. During his reign the barbarians began to make advances which could not be ignored. Then a plague struck the land killing thousands of people. The world was watching closely, Marcus Aurelius was the last of Romes "Five Good Emperors".

A Typical Roman : Free Laborer

2008-11-03T13:44:00.003-06:00

...Free Laborers were men who were not slaves yet they worked for other men. They were generally from the lower class, men who were not wealthy enough to own their own slaves or posses their own business. Fishermen were free laborers, as well as artists, masons, entertainers and actors. "Free" does not mean that they provided unpaid services, rather it denoted that these men were not slaves but Roman citizens or Roman citizen wannabees.
...What would life have been like for a single free laborer without much wealth in imperial Rome? Lets say our man is twenty and a Roman citizen, his profession is overseeing slaves building projects, and his family is of the old Roman stock; devoutly religious, patriotic, and superstitious.
...A typical day begins before the sun is fully up. Our laborer lives on the third floor of an apartment building. The lower floors are reserved for wealthier folks, and their rooms are much more spacious than the Laborers. As the man makes his way down the creaky stairs he is reminded of the fact that the third floor was an afterthought, designed hastily to bring in more money from poor tenants. It was not unusual for the structures to collapse around their inhabitants heads; but one must live somehow! It was a necessary risk. Lives are cheep in Rome.
...Outside the sun is slowly climbing and market stalls are beginning to open. Lazy slave girls yawn and irritated pedagogues hurry their young charges to school. Because out laborer comes from a poorer family he received very little education, some of the basics - about the equivalent of eighth grade.
...Breakfast consisted of a small loaf and some cheese, the man promised himself a more substantial meal later in the day. For now he was late and made himself walk quicker, all the while trying to avoid the great stinking piles of human and animal refuse which lined the streets.
...He arrived just in time to take his place at the head of a work gang of slaves; he would oversee their labor and carefully watch for signs of insubordination which would be promptly settled with his whip. The job payed a good amount, and other than standing under the fierce heat all day and barking orders until his throat was hoarse, out laborer found that it was pretty easy made money. At least he was not one of those slaves breaking their back in Nero's new building project, rebuilding Rome to ten times its former glory after last years terrable fire. The laborer sometimes wandered had started the fires himself, but he would never dream of saying so aloud - no, far better to let the blame rest where the emperor had placed it, with the Christians.
...Later that day, as evening was coming close, the laborer walked back to his dwelling. On the way he stopped to buy a fig cake and some wine. He thought of the onions and cheese he had in his room and grinned anticipating his coming feast. Of course, his meager fare was nothing like the sumptious festivals Nero had been conducting lately. Our man only hoped the emperors indulgent actions continued, he would like more free bread and gladitorial shows. of course, some in the senate resented Nero's behavior and reckless spending; and there was the widespread slaughter of the Christ-followers to think about. But those Christians defied the gods and would bring down judgement on Rome, the man shivered and muttered a prayer to Jupiter. What if things went bad?
...O well, if this job failed him he could always become a gladiator. Not so comforting as assuring a thought.

A Typical Roman: Emperor

2008-10-31T11:44:00.002-05:00

...Emperors were at the top of the food chain in Rome. They were obeyed and feared given the fact they possessed such a great amount of power. Still, being emperor came with its own set of aggravations and trials. They had a reputation to uphold, an empire to run, and of course, the the threat of assassination was ever present. An emperor could be good or bad, respected or disliked : and we have a wide selection of both to interview.

...For today's interest I have arranged the following interview with two of Romes most famous Emperors - no easy task let me assure you.)I had to go back in time twice because these emperors lived and died in separate stages)

People, let me introduce our guests today. Emperor Augustus and Emperor Nero.

Press(Me:) - "Emperors do you mind telling us your time frame ; when did you become Emperor, things like that?"

Augustus - " I became Emperor in the year 27 B.C and am ruling even now."

Nero - "My excellent self received authority in the year 54 A.D. just forty years after Augustus."

Press - " And what allot has happened in that forty year time! What do you think has been the biggest change since Augustus rule?"

Nero - "It is hard to say, but I believe Augustus was more modest as an Emperor - not wanting to offend the Senate and general rabble. I however am like a god to my subjects and they love me! I have grander schemes and - "

Augustus - "And you spend money more freely. Really Nero, its like you think Rome is made of gold! You and future Emperors like you will destroy all that I have sought to build."

Nero - "You don't know that! You act as though Rome belonged to you just because you started something new! I am creating more than an Empire, I am creating a world fit for the gods!"

Augustus - "Namely yourself. Is it not true that you command your subjects to practically worship you? Its insufferable, no true Roman could bear it!"

Press - "Emperors! You bring up some excellent points, which beg a question from me. Is it true Nero that you are executing Christians for refusing to you and other Roman 'gods' ?"

Augustus - "See! That's just the thing I'm talking about! Heavens above, great Jupiter, what are you getting us into O predecessor?"

Press - "Augustus, please. Let Nero speak."

Nero - " Upon my word, I find it hard to answer these direct accusations from one who has been dead forty years! You have no idea how troublesome a place Rome has become great Caesar, it is not what it was in your time. The Christians embody just one of our pestilences, all dissenters must be brought to reason! I must have proper respect!"

Augustus - "I suppose killing them has brought you this, ahem, respect?"

Nero - "Well, you don't understand , I,- "

Press - "Speaking of respect, what is it that you two do as Emperors that garners respect from Roman citizens?"

Augustus - "I have Romes best interest at heart. Every day I listen to the Senate, read reports, and grant pardons. It rests with me to protect our borders and promote our interests. I also appoint men to office as governors of provinces. Mine is a weighty task which I cannot take lightly."

Press - "Nero? How about you?"

Nero - "Hmm, well. I can see the advantages in Augustus' duties, and I do acquit myself often of those tasks. But he has left something important out. I arrange games for the masses! Give the people bread and a circus and they will love you! I arrange gladiatorial fights, races, plays -"

Augustus - "Murders?"

Nero - "Of course not! Didn't you hear me? Are you referring to the Christians again? I told you, they are disturbers of the peace!?

Press - " Would now be a good time for me to mention that I am a Christian?"

Nero - "Ye gods! can it be so?"

Augustus - " I guess your little efforts to stamp Christians out didn't work, eh big boy?"

Nero - "But I've been trying so hard - are you sure we are talking about the same thing?"

Press - "Absolutely positive. Which reminds me of another question which may solve a centuries old mystery. Did you set fire to Rome and frame the Christians?"

Augustus - "He did what! O my Jupiter! Rome, my beloved city - you set it on fire? Hermes, I'll hamstring you..."

Nero - "Preposterous! I can't believe what I'm hearing, all lies! Can it be that there is any doubt in modern historians minds as to who set fire to Rome?"

Augustus - " I don't know about them, but there sure is in my mind!"

Nero - "I didn't do it! It was those trouble making, ungrateful, stubborn Christ-followers. But since the damage is done, I may as well tell you Augustus that I am rebuilding Rome on a far grander, richer, scale than you did."

Augustus - "I bet you are, thou avaritius aper!"

Nero - "O really, fur furem cognoscit, et lupum lupus!"

Press - "Well this interview has run out of time. Besides, our guests have relapsed into Latin. I guess we will not know the answer to history's question after all, I leave it up to you to decide if Nero speaks truth."

Press - "Thank you Emperors for your time, I know it is valuable."

Augustus - "Aye, some of us have work to do."

Nero - "Hey! I have to attend a banquet being held in my honor, oversee a gladiatorial fight, travel to my country villa - nerves you know ...."

Press - "Goodnight gentlemen."

Historical Scrapbooking Part 2!!!

2008-10-29T14:13:00.001-05:00

... If you have not read my previous post on this subject, go to the label Historical Scrapbooks on the side and be sure to check them out! I left off with the Patriarchs, so today we will start with Egypt.

...Egypt was one of my favorite sections to do, there are just so many ways to be creative with displaying the Egyptian civilization! I had fun drawing and coloring pictures of Egyptians and hieroglyphs to paste around the pages. At the bottom of the first page is a small pyramid shaped (of course!) book which tells the Egyptian myth of creation.

...Here and there I have copied bible verses about Egypt directly onto the page. The map has a tab, embellished with an Egyptian looking fan display, which holds the clear overlay sheet down. You can see on most of my pages time line figures from the "Homeschool in the Woods" website.

...I have found that a black fine tipped Sharpie pen, works best for writing on the overlay sheets.

... Since we studied Egypt for three weeks I had a lot of material to display. So I ended up needing six pages in the Egyptian section! Above are the next two. Aside from charts, drawings and timeline figures, I put a small open out book about the Egyptian afterlife and a piece of papyrus. You can see the book opened below.

...On the last two pages, here I needed to put a large mailing envelope to hold papers which would not fit on the pages. Cutting the top off made it an easy slide in, slide out, and I decorated the front with more stuff!

... On the last page I have yet another book, held shut by a little decorative sticker.(I like using the thick stationary type stickers for sealing envelopes) And on front of the book I pasted a little piece of Egyptian artwork I did. Also more National Geographic cuttings add interest.

...Below is the Egyptian artwork, I had a lot of fun making this. It is made from strips of antique, papyrus looking paper soaked in a flour/water paste and then pieced back together. After it dried the edges still had a nice ragged look to them. Then I carefully drew a small scene of Egyptian life by looking at one of their actual tomb paintings. When I was satisfied with the drawing I painted it with Acrylics using a tiny paintbrush and yes, even tooth picks! The hieroglyphs at the top were done with a black felt tipped Sharpie pen. At the time I was crazy about Egyptian hieroglyphs and knew how to write small messages. So the writing does actually say something, I just don't remember exactly what now. I think it was something about attending a feast?

...Anyways, next is Moses and the Children of Israel. For this section I also took six pages.

...Here is the big picture of the front two pages. I always print up a title and paste it on the upper left hand corner of the first page.

...Below is a detail of some "extras" I put in. Normally I would not advise trying to put anything too bulky on a scrapbook page. But I really wanted to show some examples of the riches the Israelites carried away with them on exciting Egypt. So I put in some scraps of "fine" fabric and a plastic jewel. :) Above it is the passage about Israel plundering the Egyptians.

Here is the second section for Moses. I pasted in a pen and ink drawing of Moses on the mountain.

Here is a close up on the details...

There is one more two page spread for Moses and the Exodus, see below. Next update will be India!

A Typical Roman : Merchant

2008-10-29T14:10:00.002-05:00

...Roman merchants rarely came from the upper class, though indeed many of them were wealthy enough to form their own aristocratic branch. The higher patrician families considered manual labor and careers in trade to be demeaning. For the most part merchants were from the middle class.
...Becoming a merchant was a matter of money and trade. There were many stalls lining the streets of Rome's cities and with some money and luck a reasonable shop could be set up. Some merchants were more successful than others, people always want necessities - and in times of affluence, luxuries. Lets focus on a typical Roman merchant with a family of five.
... His days are probably full, although he does have several slaves to help in the shop; they keep count of sales, clean the shop, and collect dues. For now this merchant oversees his own affairs, but soon he hopes to acquire an educated slave, preferably Greek, who could take over most of his responsibilities. He is a dealer in fine pottery and dishware, with growing business since Augustus came to power.
...Like other merchants of his rank and citizenship he frequents the bath house for leisure and occasionally attends parties with or without his wife. He has four children, three daughters and a son. This is very 'lucky' because mortality rates for children are high. After his son was born his wife lost two babies, so now they have decided not to have any more children because death of women in childbirth is also very high.
...Once in a while he is called to vote as a juror, an exciting task. Court cases were popular amusements in Rome and the upper balconies filled fast with spectators.
...Life is good and will probably get better with time. One day the merchant hopes to pass on his business to his son. Right now the boy attends a local one room school with other merchants sons, there they are taught to read, write, memorize poetry and literature, and do basic mathematics including Geometry.
...The merchants daughters were taught all they needed to know from their mother and the household domestic slaves. It was very important for girls to learn how to weave, manage a household, and be a good wife before they were twelve years old. Why twelve? Most girls married between the ages of twelve and fourteen. Already the merchant had selected a husband for his eldest, who is thirteen, they will be married towards the end of Jun - a particularly lucky time of year for Roman marriages. The man is ten years the girls senior, but this was common as men wanted younger wives and were not ready to take a wife until they were older. The merchants daughter has not yet met her bridegroom, but considers herself fortunate because he is reported to be kind and handsome with a good establishment.
...Yes, life is good for this merchant. And right now he and his family have nothing more pressing than looking forward to the Roman festival "Floralia" which was coming in a few weeks.

A Typical Roman : Slave (Greek)

2008-10-29T13:33:00.005-05:00

(This is the first post of a four part series on Roman life. Have you ever wondered what it would be like to stand in someone else's shoes? How about a Roman citizen, a thirteen year old bride, an emperor? Just in case you've ever wondered, read the below and following updates! :)

...In Rome slaves were considered property. They had no rights and were not considered to be citizens. But they did have the opportunity for a good life if they happened to be in the right position at the right time. A galley slave could have little hope of living, let alone comfort; a mining slave was beaten and maltreated until death was welcome. But for many slaves life could be good, even privileged. What would your life have been like if you were a Greek slave?

...Greek slaves were valued above the average lot because the Romans admired the Greek civilization. Greeks were usually well educated, talented, smart, and trustworthy. As a result Greek slaves were snapped up off the market and placed in wealthy household positions. The upper class bought Greeks to be their physicians, tutors, household managers and even farm holders! A slave in a wealthy family could even became influential and respected.

...Sometimes owners gave their slaves wages; after a while the slave could buy his freedom, or choose to invest in his own business or small farm. Freed slaves formed a good portion of the wealthier middle class, running successful businesses and owning their own slaves. Most household slaves, especially Greeks, were not treated as inferior. They were respected and well cared for. Parents trusted them with their childrens education and safety. It is hard to imagine a society where slavery was accepted and normal, where slaves were even viewed as respectable and honorable in many cases. Yet in many Roman circles it was so, and Greek slaves were usually very respected, vauable, members of society.

The Heart Of America

2008-10-17T20:40:00.002-05:00

...Where do you stand this political season? Where do any Christians stand in politics? How about for the last ten years, twenty?
...If you are like many Christians planning to vote with the Constitution Party, I ask you to prayerfully read this paper. I am not attacking you or your opinion or convictions, nor am I trying to bring further division to the people of God. But I am condemning America for her pride and her wretched drifting from the lap of God. And I am condemning the church for abandoning true religion, the work which God gave to her. Both of these units are made up of people like you and me, Christians and American citizens who have lost our way; we are more concerned with the Law than with the Spirit, with works than with faith. Let me explain.

...Many believe that it would be wrong to vote for Sarah Palin because she is a woman. (After all, the New Testament is full of passages admonishing women to be submissive to their husbands and keepers of the home.) Allot of this has been coming from conservative home school families who have been carefully raising their daughters to be homemakers. Families like my own. Personally I am not so conservative as some, although the world has accused me of being legalistic; I believe being a wife and mother is a high and noble calling, one which most women are called too. It is the normal way the Lord works, a sure way of raising up holy offspring for the next generation which is what the Lord seeks. But these are not "normal" times.

...What we have witnessed in America is a spiritual decline; our families are crumbling through divorce and rebellion; our churches are often dead and dying; and our government has become a seat for pride and hypocrisy, surely a stronghold for Satan. Despite valiant efforts on the part of many, especially the "reformed conservative home school" movement, our country is worse than ever. What is wrong?

...Now I do not pretend to have all the answers, and far be it from me to point at others with a plank in my own eye! I can only share with you the burden on my heart, you must take it to Scripture and see if it rings true. Please pray and search Gods Word on this matter - and let the Holy Spirit help you draw conclusions before replying.

...The reason we have not had a great spiritual awakening in America for so many years is because we Christians have not been faithfully doing Gods Work. Instead we have focused on ourselves; on how to become "holier" by what we wear, what our profession is, how many children we have, how we keep the Sabbath, whether or not we home school, whether or not we have a "classical" education, whether we read plenty of "out of print books", whether we have memorized the Westminster Catechism, whether we have our children baptised as infants or not; the list goes on and on. I am not saying that these things are wrong, on the contrary, most of the above are helpful and probably godly things to do as families. Yet we cannot let these things become the heart of Christianity, any more than we can let "political correctness" and socialism become the heart of America. Our heart is Jesus, our center is the cross, our hope is in Christ alone. Not modesty, not stay at home mothers, not having large families, not homeschooling, and not what denomination we attend.

...This is the difference we must see, the difference between walking in the Spirit and walking by the letter of the Law. Works could not save Israel and they certainly will not save us. Faith in Jesus, doing the work of God, true religion, this is what America needs. we have strayed from our roots and God has allowed us to come this far. I believe this election season is a judgement from God, and like the Israelites in Jeremiahs time, we need to accept what He is doing. In fact if we as Christians would stop to see the parallels between ourselves and wayward Israel the results would be stunning. Lets look at the story of Deborah.

...In the days of Deborah Israel had been sold into slavery, they were harshly oppressed. Here in America we may not yet find ourselves physically oppressed, but we are spiritually. America has become a slaughterhouse for the unborn, an arena for unfaithfulness and abomination, and we are fast moving towards a new era of depravity as our pride soars unbound. China and the Middle East poise on the horizon, much as Sisera and the King of the Canaanites did for the Israelites. American Christians have brought this on themselves by handing over the cares of the church to the state, bu abandoning true religion as spoken of in James, and by becoming silent about the Gospel under the pressure of "religious tolerance". We are all guilty, I am guilty.

...Why is it we are so divided as Christians in the political arena? Why have we not been able to get a third party Constitutional candidate in office? Some might say its because other Christians are afraid to vote their conscience, or because of unfairness in the White House/Press/ Republican, or, Democrat party..... I say lets look at the issue from a bigger perspective, Gods in fact.

...Ultimately God is the One who has allowed our politics to get where they are, He is the One who has not blessed Christians efforts in the last couple decades. The question we need to be asking Him and ourselves is Why?

...Maybe it is because we have not been faithful to our posts. Maybe it is because we have been teaching our children to honor God with their lips and appearance, but not with their hearts and deeds. I've heard many Christians say that it is wrong for Christians to work outside of Gods prescribed way of "doing" things in order to bring about His will. I say Amen to this!But lets be honest, have we been working Gods way to bring in the harvest in America? Have we been true to the great commission in our every day lives? Is the only time we talk about Christ when we are at church or around other Christians?When was the last time you shared the Gospel with an unbeliever? When was the last time you were even around an unbeliever?

...I can only blush when I think about my own actions. But by Gods grace I intend to turn this around, to share Christ at every grocery store on every street corner, and by more than what I "wear" - by the words I say to those I meet.I've been letting my clothes, family size, hairdo, even shoes! do the witnessing for me. Brothers and Sisters that's not enough. Many of you may feel as I do, lets pray for great revival and go out and do the Lords work by preaching Christ to every soul we meet. Lets recognise the judgement of God on America, our country, right now.

...So why am I voting for Mcain and Sarah Palin? Isn't voting for a woman going against Gods way of doing things? Would He bless that?

...Firstly, as far as what God blesses and doesn't bless, He certainly has chose not to bless the constitution party nominee for a long time. Why? I believe it is part of the judgement on America and we Christians. Secondly, in times of judgement before, God has appointed woman leaders. This is evident by Deborah and is perhaps why her story is included in Gods Word. I do believe this was a mark of shame for Israel, and it would be a mark of shame for America. But it was Gods will at that time and He used it to save His people. The way I see it we have shame on one hand and terrible judgement on the other. Not deliverance by a third door, this is not a lack of faith, but a discernment of the times we live in. We need to suck up our pride and recognise that the fight for our country has just begun. Sometimes God works in mysterious ways, appointing a godly woman instead of a godly man to office would be one of them. I think it is a merciful wake up call for Christian Americans. Our Calvinism, doctrines, and reforms won't save us. Only the pure Gospel of Christ.

...Lest anyone should think that I think Palin is a 'savior' or the answer to all our problems let me quickly what I think about her. She is a godly woman who has a solid stance against abortion, she believes in less government and lower taxes. I believe she is a reformist and possibly the start of the change we need. The fact that she is a woman is a issue for me, it goes against my conviction concerning women., However I believe God is doing something right now in my heart, in America, in our government, and I would rather accept His judgement of a godly woman in office that vote against His mercy. It is a mercy that we have anyone godly running for office with the chance of winning the election. I'm not going to complain when God allows a godly woman to run for office.

...In my opinion it comes down to this, do we want Deborah or the Cannanite King?

...Next year, Lord Willing, more Christian men will become involved in politics. More women will go to their unbelieving neighbors and share the gospel, not how to dress, not how to home school, not who to vote for. We are not persecuted for witnessing, yet. Lets take advantage of that as the blessing it is and get to the heart of the matter. When a soul is awakened to the Lord then other things will follow. Lets teach our children not to look down on the neighborhood kids in the street, but instead to lovingly reach out as ambassadors for Christ. Together let us reach the voting masses with the heart of the matter, Christ.

...But first we need to change. We have to experience the love for God before we can talk about it with others. Our hearts need to be on fire for God, He has to live in us. He doesn't want lip service when you sing the hymns, He wants your love, your joy, your devotion. In short your "feeling" of love and joy in Him. Don't say you love Him if you don't. Love is felt, don't shy away from the word emotions because its a taboo word in the Presbyterian church. God wants everything from you and chances are if you say you love Him without "feeling" it then you are a hypocrite.

...Don't live by the law as the Pharisees did. Walk in the fullness of the times with Christ. Share Him with the unsaved, with the unwed mother, with the gang members, the atheistic co-workers, the freaky cashier girl, the grubby neighborhood kids. They are the Heart of America. Your heart is Christs.
"Even now," declares the LORD, "return to me with all your heart, with fasting and weeping and mourning."

Rend your heart
and not your garments.
Return to the LORD your God,
for he is gracious and compassionate,
slow to anger and abounding in love,
and he relents from sending calamity.

Who knows? He may turn and have pity
and leave behind a blessing—
grain offerings and drink offerings
for the LORD your God."

Joel 2: 12-14

A Brief Overview of the Celtic Tribes 750 B.C.-50 B.C.

2008-08-21T12:39:00.012-05:00

...This post is intended to be a reference on The early Celts. I will be answering the following seven questions in short summary, hopefully this will help those who want a brief overview for papers etc...

1. Geographic Setting?
2. Government?
3. Religious Beliefs?
4. Written Works?
5. Arts and Sciences?
6. Occupations?
7. Inventions and Achievements?

1. Geographic Setting?

...The early Celts were quite spread out, the maps below show the extent of their wanderings. Scholars often divide the Celts into roughly four groups; the Gauls in France, Iberians in Spain and Portugal, Cisalpine Gauls in Italy, and Britons/Gaels in the British Isles.

2. Government?

...For the most part the Tribes were led by Kings/Chieftains, often elected for their physical prowess in earlier times. (The process was called the Consensus of the "Thing", a gathering of tribal leaders) There is some debate over the possibility of there having been primitive forms of Oligarchical Republic forms of government. Society was divided into three distinct groups; the Warrior Aristocracy, the Bards or Druids (Learned men who filled the roles of priests, judges and lore-keepers), and finally the common class.

...It is interesting that the Celts in there early forms of government can be compared to the Greeks. Each were ruled by smaller warring factions and alliances. They each had Tribal loyalties over National Patriotism. This made it easy for both to fall to Rome when she came along.

3. Religious Beliefs?

...The Celts were Polytheistic in the extreme. They had literally hundreds of gods and goddesses who were often associated with nature and special skills. Druids were the "Priests" who performed ritual sacrifices to ensure things like good harvests and success in war. The Celts probably had human sacrifices as well as cows, sheep and fruit of the fields. Often Druids traveled through different villages performing the duties of their office and bearing news. (A note to the side, aside from gods and goddesses the Celts had superstitions about fairies and brownies)

4. Written Works?

...Very little has survived from the Ancient Celts who were often referred to as the "hidden people". They had superstitions about writing their knowledge down, and preferred to pass it on by word of mouth. However as a side note, some claim that the art of Rhyme in poetry was invented by the Celts.

5. Arts and Sciences?

... The Celts were a very talented and industrious people. They invented the beautiful Celtic scroll work and knots which so many cultures admire today. They invented the La Tene art; special patterns for ornamentation featuring swirls and spirals. (Later on medieval monks used this to decorate manuscripts) Aside from this the Celts were skilled in metalwork and knew how to forge iron weapons.

6. Occupations?

...In Ancient Celtic times a man was often born into his profession. Sons usually followed the trade of their father. Some occupations might have been; Farming, Silver Smiths, Metal Work, Jewelers, and Hunting.

7. Inventions and Achievements?

...Aside from the previously mentioned metal work with iron and inventions in poetry, the Celts are attributed with creating chain mail and soap. They may also have had chariots before the Romans, some believe the Romans got the idea from the Celts.

A Satyrical Summary of the Punic Wars: Part 3

2008-08-01T11:33:00.003-05:00

Punic War No. 3 149-146 B.C.
...As the shortest and most violent of the Punic Wars, the third is also the most unsatisfactory. At least to this Historian. Carthage and Rome could not settle their differences, it was inevitable that one at least should be destroyed. A well respected Roman senator named Cato would end every speech in this way, "furthermore, it is my opinion that Carthage must be destroyed". (Talk about off topic, what if his speech had been on the need for public plumbing?)

...Eventually the Romans decided to take Cato's advice seriously and prepared for another assault on Carthage. The Carthaginians got wind of it and immediately started casting about for a plan that would appease the Romans and buy them more time. A council arrived from Carthage to lay the matter before Rome, asking what they wanted in return for peace. The Romans thought about, and probably did some serious head scratching. In the end they demanded that three hundred of the Carthaginian nobles children be sent as permanent hostages to Rome. And they were sent.

...But Rome was not ready to drop the matter, they really wanted Carthage destroyed. In fact, an excellent excuse presented itself on cue. The Carthaginians attacked Numidia, a neighboring country that had been causing problems. Numidia was an ally of Rome however, and the Romans were not inclined to think lightly of the matter. Numidia won the war with Carthage, and Carthage who had just made the final payment to Rome for the last war's expenses, found herself in debt again- this time to Numidia. (Talk about debt, I would think maybe it was time to stop the wars, at least if you cannot win them).

...All this made it easy for Rome to bully Carthage, who was getting weaker and weaker. Carthage had relied upon mercanaries to do most of her fighting and now without money could not afford to raise an army. Rome on the other hand had a standing army made up of its own citizens which gave her a considerable advantage when combined with the fact she was winning most battles. So Rome made an impossable demand on the Carthaginians, "If you want peace you may have it. But first you must move your city ten miles inland".

...This was an impossable demand, and the Carthaginians knew it. To move their city meant to destroy it and rebuild, something they had not the money, man power nor desire to do. It was a declaration of all out war down to the last man.

...The Carthaginian ambassadors hurried back to Carthage where they spread the bad news. "Sorry guys, even after sending your children we are going to have to fight to the death. At least those kids are out of harms way". The citizens of Carthage roused themselves to action, since they had no army they would have to defend themselves. Which they were determined to do, this was a fight for the survival of a people.

...The women cut of their hair and gave it to the men who made it into catupult strings, and in a short time they mustered up thousends of makeshift weapons. A rag tag mass of people stood defiantly upon the walls of Carthage when Rome's uniformed army came in sight. What must the Romans have been thinking?

...Whatever the Romans thought, the Carthaginians lasted longer than anyone could have expected. They withstood the initial onslaught of the world's most powerful fighting force and won for themselves a brave last stand. But it was a last stand. A new general called Scipio Aemilianus arrived to head Rome's army, and he new his business. Although it took him three years of siege he breached Carthage's walls and burned it to the ground. (After sacking and plundering of course)

...Thus ended the Punic Wars, and the satyrical commentary. In my opinion two things can be learned here. 1. Never start a war your citizens aren't going to fight themselves... 2. Make sure you have enough money to cover yours and your enemies expenses, just in case you loose.

...Furthermore, it is my opinion that spiritual death and war must be destroyed through the power of the Gospel.

A Satyrical summary of the Punic Wars: part 2

2008-07-31T12:14:00.004-05:00

...Punic War No.2

...Proud and eager for new territories the Carthaginians conquered Spain. Rome lay just on the other side of the Alps, a temptation too much for Carthage's newest general Hannibal. (Legend says that Hannibal's father made him swear as a boy to always be Rome's enemy)

...Carthage was just getting over paying her fines for the last war, and feeling that sigh of relief and "what shall we do with the money now" syndrome, when Hannibal marched over the Alps with 60,000 men. (Oops, I guess we know were the money went) Carthage's brilliant and daring general invaded the country side around Rome, gathering some 20,000 Gauls into his army. He was such a great general that none could defeat him, during the whole time he stayed in Italy he lost not a single battle. Eventually the Romans fled to their well fortified city and waited for the next generation to grow up and become a new army. (Yes, that's how bad things had gotten)

...Then one day Rome got smart. "Why don't we sail around the peninsula and attack Spain which lies nearly defenseless in Hannibal's absence?" (I say give that guy a medal or something for coming up with such an obvious alternative to doing nothing) So they sailed around to Spain and did to Carthage what Carthage was doing to Rome, terrorized the countryside and forced the citizens to flee for safety in the cities. Soon Carthage itself was under threat.

...On a chessboard the situation would look something like this. Each opponent has outmaneuvered the other and crawled right up next to the king, they are both in check. (Impossible I know, but indulge me) Now one of them has the first move, it is his turn next. If that one is intelligent and lucky he has a piece which can put his opponents king in checkmate and free his king from check at the same time. (Difficult I know) Of course following the rules of chess strictly, your options are probably few or non existent. In fact this situation could only occur if one or both were grossly ignorant, misinformed or unobservant.

...But Rome and Carthage were fighting in real life, they did not need to bow to the rules of chess. If Carthage had been smart she would have ordered Hannibal to attack Rome, which was much weaker than she because of being under siege longer, and perhaps the war would have ended differently. Instead Carthage's fat politicians overreacted in fear and sent for Hannibal to return. So Hannibal lost a golden opportunity to invade Rome; and returned to Carthage where the Roman army was beaten off.

...Not to be outdone, Rome sailed to Spain and captured all of Carthage's territories there. Soon they became the major power of the Mediterranean. A big threat to Carthage, formerly mistress of the seas.

...Thus the double implications of loyalty to ones government officials were publicly displayed. A glaring example which simply screams "help me" from the pages of history. (Alas, we cannot see the future and tell when treason will be loyalty, or loyalty treason) By obeying the summons Hannibal saved himself from a traitors execution, but his choice sealed the death of Carthage along with his own. One day he would die an ignoble untimely death at his own hands. The same could be said of Carthage in a way.

Food for Thought...

2008-07-31T11:13:00.002-05:00

"Every Civilization carries the seeds of its own destruction, and the same cycle shows in them all. The Republic is born, flourishes, decays into plutocracy, and is captured by the shoemaker whom the mercenaries and millionaires make into a king. The people invent their oppressors, and the oppressors serve the function for which they are invented."

-Mark Twain

A Satyrical Summary of the Punic Wars, Part 1

2008-07-25T13:14:00.006-05:00

...Punic War No. 1

...The first Punic War lasted from 264-241 B.C. There are many ways to explain or excuse its beginning; but here I intend to rather expose the folly of two nations. Man is greedy for gain, and man is eager for conquest. Why? I wonder why you ask, the answer is obvious. We are a fallen lot and without the transforming power of the Gospel cannot cease to live for ourselves and look out for our own personal interest. I have sympathies with both sides of the war, Carthage and Rome. So the fact that they both had to fight it out to the death like two spoiled children has always been a canker in my side. Although looking at history I can see God's hand at work.

...Carthage and Rome were the two major powers of the time, and they each envied the others land and position. Carthage was in her decline but still had enough spirit left in her to birth several famous generals. Up and coming Rome felt that Carthage had been eminent past its time and should step down to admit a new mistress of the Mediterranean world. (Namely herself)

...One city in particular seemed to draw more quarrels than the rest. It was called Messana and was located in southern Sicily. The reason it was such a bone of contention between them was because near to Messana were Greek colonies, which as everyone knows were allies with Rome. (you knew that right?) The Greek colonies were supposedly fearful that Carthage who owned Messana might attack them sometime. And I guess it was a possability. So they sent to Rome a cry for help.

...At length war broke out; hostile intentions were declared and the first Punic war begun. Although the Romans had little or no experience with ship building or sailing, they put their best foot forward and built a fleet. With this fleet they won a naval battle, and then promptly lost the whole thing to a storm. No matter, they quickly built another one. This one too emerged victorious from battle, and then was lost in another storm. You would think that at this point the Romans might have got the hint, I mean I would be asking, "Is this a sign or something?". But unfortunately for the Carthaginians the Romans were no overly superstitious and built yet another fleet. (The citizens were obviously planning way above the average replacement plan)

...By this time the Romans were experts at ship building I should think, so it is no wonder they won the war. Carthage angrily admitted defeat, at least for the time being, and surrendured Messana. The Romans demanded and indeminity for the war's expenses, which means that Carthage would pay the Roman's royal sums of money to cover the costs of the war. (I bet the Carthaginians were feeling the costs of "three fleets" then, and wishing the war had not lasted quite so long.) An uneasy peace reigned until the next Punic War errupted.

Hannibal Barca; a guest post from my brother Jay

2008-07-14T20:20:00.007-05:00

Hannibal Barca
By James East

...It was early morning and the sun was just mounting over the Spanish hills. Hannibal Barca walked amid the camp of soldiers, who were preparing themselves for the day ahead. Looking for his father among the Carthaginians, Hannibal soon found whom he sought readying himself for a long march. Hamilcar Barca was the general of the Carthaginians in Spain, but you couldn’t tell it from observing him. He eat, slept, and marched just like a common soldier. “We have a long mach before us son, we must reach our destination before nightfall” Said Hamilcar.

...Carthage, a great city in Africa by the Mediterranean, had sent an army to Spain to conquer new lands and slaves. Also Spain was rich in silver, which of course was an added benefit for the corrupt Carthaginian Senate. Hamilcar Barca had been elected to command this large force. Surprisingly, Hamilcar brought his young son Hannibal, who was only nine. But sadly Hamilcar died in 229 and his son in law, Hasdrubal (he had more than one of this name) succeeded him as general.

...Through the next seven years, Hannibal was an immense help to his brother in law, and was a key cause of the expansion and consolidation of Carthaginian rule in Spain. During this time, (about 226) a treaty was made that defined the Ebro River as the territorial line between Carthage and Rome.

... But another tragedy occurred in the Barca family. Hasdrubal, general of the Spanish army, was assassinated. And the army, though grieved at this intelligence, voted a better man into the position. At the mere age of twenty six, Hannibal was elected into the vacated position of general.

... A year after Hannibal’s becoming a general, the town of Saguntum appealed to be included under the Ebro river treaty, and to be put under the protection of Rome. For the people of Saguntum were afraid of the Barcas, and thought that sooner than later they would be on the list of burned cities.Now Saguntum was in the middle of the Spanish empire controlled by Carthage. This being the case, the Romans dived at a chance to stir up another war with their arch enemy.

...For a time Hannibal avoided this turncoat city, but when the Saguntums tried to convince other cities to follow their example, Hannibal retaliated by attacking Saguntum in the spring of 219. Altogether it took him eight months too capture the city, and he was wounded severely in the process. Due to this act of “aggression”, Rome asked the Carthaginians to remove Hannibal from command and punish him. If this was not done, Rome would declare war on Carthage. Fabius, the Roman envoy "…laid his hand on the fold of his toga…and, 'Here,' he said, 'we bring you peace and war. Take which you will.' Scarcely had he spoken when the answer no less proudly rang out: 'Whichever you please, we do not care.' Fabius let the gathered folds fall, and cried: 'We give you war.'

...Thus the Second Punic war began. Hannibal had played no part in the first which completed a few years after he was born, but it seemed he would have a major role in the second. In fact on the Carthaginian side, the war was carried on almost entirely by Hannibal and his brothers Mago and Hasdrubal.

... Now when Hannibal had been very young, his father made him swear enmity to Rome so long as he lived. Since war had been declared, Hannibal wished to place Carthage back in the position of mistress of the world. Since Hannibal was a very intellectually gifted man, and he knew that the Romans would believe him to advance to Rome by the long land route, since the Romans had superiority at sea, but to him time was of the essence, and he wanted to surprise the Romans by taking the path that they would least suspect. So Hannibal determined to invade Italy by crossing that enormous natural barrier that loomed up to the height of the clouds, the Alps. But Rome could not fall, not even if it was burned to the ground, it would be rebuilt, Hannibal’s only chance was to break apart the Italian confederacy, from which Rome drew immense resources. If he could draw most of the Italian to his side then perhaps, just perhaps, he could finally destroy Rome.

... Hannibal ensured that Spain and Africa would be safe in his absence. So he left 16,000 Spanish troops in Africa, and 16,000 African troops in Spain. He also received promises of support from the Gauls of northern Italy, who hated the Romans and all who were allies with them.

... In spring of 218, having prepared everything, Hannibal set out across the Ebro River with a force that consisted of, according to Polybius, 90,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry and roughly 34 war elephants. Aware that the Romans would soon be arriving in Spain, Hannibal left 20,000 of his troops with his brother Hasdrubal, this same brother was also made general in Spain.

...Hasdrubal however, was unfortunate in that most of the veteran officers and troops went with Hannibal, while he was given command of mostly fresh recruits. But, though not given veterans, Hasdrubal still had a significant job. He was to protect Spain, and raise supplementary forces with which to invade Italy and reinforce Hannibal’s army with, when he was permitted to by the Carthaginian senate.

...In late spring of 218, Hannibal swiftly marched through and subjugated most of northern Spain. After doing so, he left Hanno with 10,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry to hold the area with, and he also sent the same number of Spanish troops home. Now, having but 50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry, Hannibal headed toward the Rhone River.

...After crossing the Pyrenees, where he met stiff resistance from native tribes, Hannibal passed into Transalpine Gaul. By the time he reached the Rhone, Hannibal’s Spanish troops were greatly diminished in number, due to desertion and opposition. During the crossing of the Rhone, hostile tribes were seen on the opposite side, so Hannibal sent a body of men to cross further upstream and attack these savages in the rear.

...During all of this time Rome had not been idle, two armies had been formed, one under Consul P. Cornelius Scipio, for the attack on Hannibal, the other under Consul T. Sempronius, for the invasion of Africa. But Scipio was delayed by an uprising of the Boian and Insubrian Gauls. Thus Lucius Manlius, a Praetor, took Scipio’s army to protect the Po River against any uprising of the Gauls, thus Scipio had to wait in Rome for another army to be raised levied for him to command. Once this new army was levied, Scipio sailed with it to Massilia. Once he arrived at the Rhone, Scipio found that he had missed Hannibal by but a few days, and that the Carthaginian was marching northward. Now understanding what Hannibal intended Scipio sent his brother, who had accompanied him thus far, on to Spain while he returned to Rome to await Hannibal.

...The Carthaginian force approached the Alps by either the Col de Grimone or the Col de Cabre, passing into the upper Po basin, entering the hostile Taurini territory, where Hannibal razed the chief town. As they drove on up the mountains, they met with upon the soldiers, and the rear of the army was often harassed. Though he had Gallic guides, Hannibal began to mistrust their loyalty. Snow now fell heavily, and some slipped upon the ice from the year before and fell to their ruin. Against the opposing tribes, Hannibal took countermeasures, but these involved him in heavy losses in men. Though they captured a town and so replenished their provisions, still the going became more difficult.

...Finally, after 15 days what was left of Hannibal’s force descended into Italy, there remained but 20,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry. And of the 34 war elephants but a few survived the icy crossing of the Alps. But five months ago the Carthaginians had set out upon this seemingly ill fated campaign; however prospects were lightened by the recruiting of around 4,000 Gauls. It was late fall of 218 and Hannibal had succeeded in finding a road to Rome, but now he did not have enough men to risk facing P. Cornelius Scipio (Scipio Africanus father). And so Hannibal worked on strengthening his force, namely bribing, pressing, and recruiting Gauls, Celts, and Ligurian tribes to his cause. Now, after this run of politics, Hannibal’s entire force numbered about 40,000 including cavalry and different tribes.

...In November the first battle against in Italy against Rome occurred, but it was mainly a cavalry encounter called the battle of the Ticinus River. It was fought north of the left bank of the Po, between the Sesia and Ticinus Rivers. The forces engaged were minimal, being about 8,000 per side. Hannibal placed his heavy cavalry in the centre and his Numidian light cavalry on the flanks. When this force charged, they enveloped the Roman cavalry, who were badly beaten and Scipio was wounded and forced to retreat. So the Romans withdrew to Placentia. This victory brought many more Gauls, some of whom had formally been Scipio’s allies. Again Scipio was forced to retreat, this time to the Trebbia River, where in December he joined with by Titus Sempronius Longus and his two legions. While Scipio was still recovering of his wounds, Sempronius was aching for a battle. Hannibal heard of this impatience and made a plan to take advantage of Sempronius.

...Another battle was in the making, Hannibal sent Mago, one of his brothers, with 1,000 men and 1,000 cavalry to hide among the streambeds along the Trebbia, and to make preparations to ambuscade the Romans. The next morning Hannibal sent his Numidian cavalry to harass the Roman camp. Meanwhile the rest of the army had breakfast and rubbed themselves down with oil to protect against the cold.

...Of course Sempronius fell for the cavalry bait and hastily mustered his force and gave chase to the Numidian cavalry, with not only his cavalry but infantry also, with out even allowing his men to eat. Unknown to the Romans, a little distance beyond the river was a screen of 8,000 light infantry behind which was a battle line of 20,000 African, Gallic and Spanish troops. Also there were around. 10,000 cavalry and elephants divided between the two flanks. Sempronius had roughly 16,000 Romans, 20,000 Italian allies, and was supported on his flanks by 4,000 cavalry and upwards of 3,000 Gauls.

...The velites (Roman skirmish infantry) first came into contact with the unexpected Carthaginian light infantry, but the velites performed badly and were withdrawn. Next the Roman legions advanced, while the Carthaginian elephants, cavalry and light infantry fell on the Roman cavalry, which, since outnumbered, broke ranks and fled pursued by Carthaginian cavalry, while the light infantry and elephants attacked the main Roman body. Though the velites drove of the elephants, the Romans could not pierce the main Carthaginian centre. And now to finish of any Roman morale, already lessened by cold, fatigue, hunger and lack of success, Mago and his body of men burst out of hiding and attacked the Roman rear. Now the Roman wings broke ranks and fled across the river, in which many drowned. But Sempronius with 10,000 managed to cut their way out of the death trap and make their way to Placenta. That night Scipio took the remainder of his army to Cremona and Placenta.

...Altogether Roman losses totaled approximately 15,000-20,000, whereas Hannibal lost but a few Gauls. But soon after the battle all but one of the elephants died of their wounds and the cold. But winter was coming on, and the season for Campaigning was over, so after recruiting a few more Gauls Hannibal and his men went into winter quarters.

...After a freezing winter, Hannibal, in the spring of 217, was able to advance to the river Arno and from there march toward the Apennine Mountains. This year the Roman Consuls were Gaius Flaminus and Servilus Geminus. Before he could cross the Apennines, Hannibal must outmaneuver these two generals and their armies, which he did by getting in between there two positions thus cutting them of from each other.

... Now Flaminus was very rash and headstrong, and Hannibal knew this through his spies, and so he devised another ambush to take advantage of this Roman impatience. This trap would be much greater than the one at Trebbia; it would be positioned near Lake Trasimene, a perfect area to waylay another army, since there where plenty of hills behind which an entire army could lay in wait undetected and unsuspected.

... Soon this plan was carried into action when in late spring in early morning the Consul Flaminus ordered his men to pursue the Carthaginians into the region of Lake Trasimene. But unknown to Flaminus, the night before Hannibal had commanded his men to light fires on the hills of Tuoro that the Romans might think his forces there. But Hannibal’s real position was at a point were the Romans would pass through on their way to were the fires had been seen the night before, and the Carthaginian force was laid out in such a way that it could surround the Roman and force them into the lake.

...The Romans marched in thick fog (which just aided the Carthaginians), heading right into the trap made for them. Abruptly out of the mist a trumpet was heard, it was answered by many more and the sound of countless rushing feet was added to the already deafening din of trumpets. Charging through the haze Hannibal’s force burst upon the Romans, who did not have time to form proper ranks before they received the impact of the charge and were enclosed. Slowly the Romans were driven back towards Lake Trasimene, until soon it was no longer a battle but a mass butchery of the Romans. The Gauls killed all they could of their former masters without pity, in remembrance of thepunishments they had received at the hands of the Romans.

... Of the 25,000 that broke camp that morning, at least 15,000 were killed, even Flaminus, the general, was among the slain. Also the army of 4,000 sent to reinforce Flaminus was utterly decimated en route. All in all about 10,000 Romans managed to escape by breaking through the opposing lines.

...Such was the panic of the Roman people that they appointed a dictator in the 217, Quintus Fabius Maximus, who was not rash like most of the other Roman leaders, but used guerilla tactics, and took great pains to preserve the Italian confederacy. This method was the best of all the ones used so far, but it was not successful in Rome, since it did not create any enthusiasm amongst the populace.

... Now that the path over the Apennines was cleared, Hannibal crossed them with but little inconvenience, though in the passage Hannibal lost the sight in one eye due to an infection. Now on the other side of the Apennines, Hannibal ravaged the fertile Apulia and Campania. Though Hannibal could have marched on to Rome, it would have been foolhardy to attack such a city without proper siege equipment, and Hannibal still had to dissolve the Italian confederacy and so crush Rome though politics, not war which was all but futile.

... In 216 the dictatorship of Fabius ended, and the new Consuls were Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucias Aemilius Paullus. These Consuls were in favor of real fighting, and were given an army twice the size of Hannibal’s. Once the season for campaigns opened, Hannibal captured an army supply depot at Cannae. Soon one of history’s greatest battles was to be fought near this town.

...By the time of this battle, which occurred in early August of 216, one of Hannibal’s great tactical advantages died, literally, all of the elephants were now deceased. The Carthaginians now stood on the Apulian plain facing west. Opposite of them stood the Roman force commanded by G.T. Varro whose turn it was to command( the consuls took turns commanding this enormous army, every day they would switch being the general). Perhaps if it had not been Varro’s day to command, this battle would never have happened, since Paullus was against any confrontation where Hannibal’s cavalry would have favorable ground. But it was Varro’s day to command so the battle did come to pass.

...Both armies advanced on each other, and Hannibal’s cavalry defeated the Roman cavalry, which was less in number. The infantry now hastened to attack, the Romans infantry was much greater than Hannibal’s, which numbered but 35,000.Also the legionaries of the Romans were of much better quality than the rag tag Carthaginian force, which consisted of Gauls, mercenaries, and African levies, most of which spoke a different language than they’re comrades in arms

...After a short time the Romans began to slowly, ever slowly force their foes back, but they forgotten or did not notice that Hannibal’s cavalry, which had pursued the Roman cavalry past Varro’s flanks, were now but a short distance behind. The Romans pushed forward so viciously that the Carthaginians now were shaped like a giant U with the Romans like a V forcing through them. But now those who thought that a Roman victory was in sight were astounded when the cavalry that still hovered by the Roman flanks and rear, charged while at the same time the Carthaginian infantry gathered and attacked with redoubled fury. Now tables were turned and the Romans were completely surrounded and fought to the last, for the soldiers preferred to die with their foe before them than receive ridicule in Rome. C.T. Varro left the battle with a handful of cavalry and light infantry, while the brave Paullus took command. Soon the Romans broke ranks and fled, and were pursued and hamstrung (crippled and left to be killed later).

...Finally the slaughter ceased and what was left of the Roman army was captured. By the end of the day 50,000 Romans were dead, and but 15,000 managed to escape, and the rest were captured. Only 6,000 of Hannibal’s force died that day, and these losses consisted mostly of Gauls and Iberians. Rome had suffered her largest defeat in battle. Hannibal had won this battle by a double envelopment maneuver, which allows a smaller force to decimate a larger one, but it is a risky tactic, since if the enemy is prepared for it than you will be the one decimated, not him.

...When the news was brought to Rome it was first me with disbelief than terror when the news was proven correct. Hannibal was certainly the greatest threat than ever before to the Romans. For the second time in this war the Romans appointed a dictator, M. Junius Pera. Once more the Romans resorted to harassment tactics against Hannibal, and astoundingly the Romans were now more united and purposed then they had been before their great defeat.

...Though Hannibal had won a great battle, as after Trasimene, and for the same reason as after Trasimene, it was not enough to merit a march against Rome, which still commanded a large supply of resources and troops. Now Hannibal’s entire war against Rome relied on two things, receiving help and reinforcements from Carthage, and causing some of Rome’s allies to defect so his side. Hannibal now put the political side of his nature to work, and was soon rewarded greatly when a large city, Capua, cast her lot with Hannibal. This was an excellent fortune, so also was that the Carthaginian senate decided to aid both Hannibal’s invasion in Italy and in the defense of Spain (no doubt they had their own ambitions in mind when they made this decision).

...During this time, the Romans had decided that they would never give up, but would fight to the last man, and the word “peace” was forbidden to be spoken. The Romans even went so far as to release slaves, criminals, and debtors to recruit into their army (a very un-Roman thing to do), which was starting to grow strong again. But though the good news was heard that Hannibal did not intend to march on Rome, this was countered by the reports that Sicily was being attacked by two Carthaginian armies, and their ally Heiro King of Syracuse lands were being ravaged. Help, though little, was soon sent to Sicily.

...About this time Hannibal received reinforcement from Carthage, though it was not much, and a few more towns defected to Hannibal’s cause, but what Hannibal really wanted was the town Nola. But Hannibal was unable to capture Nola since Marcus Claudius Marcellus, an old but wise Roman general, was able to force to leave the vicinity of the city. Marcellus was one of the first truly intelligent generals that Hannibal had to face.

...Once again Hannibal was harassed by that old fox Fabius, and so Hannibal departed the region and passed into Campania. And here it was that Fabius got the chance he was waiting for, he managed to box Hannibal up in a canyon that because of steep and broken ground was unfavorable for cavalry and determined to give battle the next morning. For almost all of Hannibal’s victories had been for the reason that Hannibal had superior cavalry both in numbers and quality than that of the Romans.

...But since he could not use his cavalry effectively here Hannibal decided that some how he must retreat, which he did by taking several thousand cattle and tying torches to their horns and sent them towards the Roman army. The Roman sentries believed that the Carthaginians were attacking them in the night and in the confusion that followed Hannibal and his army escaped in the darkness. But Hannibal’s army was starting to wane in power, while the Romans slowly but surely gained the upper hand.

...What Hannibal needed was more reinforcement and straight out battle, but the Romans had different ideas. Always Hannibal’s foragers were in fear that suddenly they would be attacked and slain and little rest did the army get for they were followed continually and the stragglers were often assaulted by a foe that left as soon as assistance came to their victims. But in spite of this slight comfort came with the reports in 215 that Sicily had surrendered to Carthaginian rule after Heiro died, and his son gladly joined theCarthaginian side.

...Some success smiled on Hannibal, and in 214-212 most of the southern Italian cities joined him. But in the north Capua was put under blockade, and when Hannibal sent a relief force it was repelled. And also Marcellus went with two legions to Sicily to subdue the rebellion there, and this freed up Hannibal’s mobility.

...But in Italy ill was afoot for the Carthaginians, Marcellus after a long siege captured Syracuse and defeated Carthaginian presence there. In 210 the final Carthaginian forces in Sicily were mopped up. It would have been much better if the Carthaginian senate had chosen to send their armies to Hannibal instead of Sicily.

...But a few battles were in store for Hannibal in Italy, the first of which being Herdonea, a city which was under siege. When Hannibal was informed of this and that soon the people of this city might surrender, he left his baggage train behind and went on with full speed. The Romans were taken completely by surprise, and 16,000 were killed before the rest escaped. After this engagement Hannibal fought a long and indecisive battle that resulted in a tactical draw, the opposing general being none other than Marcellus, who had returned to Italy after subduing Sicily, after this draw followed the retreating Hannibal the next morning.

... It was now spring of 209, and finally a large battle was to be fought, before which Hannibal was already weakened by the defection of a great sum of his Numidian and Spanish cavalry to the Romans. Hannibal fought a long and indecisive battle that resulted in a tactical draw, the opposing general being none other than Marcellus, who had returned to Italy after subduing Sicily, after this draw followed the retreating Hannibal the next morning.

...That night when Hannibal attempted to set up camp the harassment that he had been receiving almost all that day from his former cavalry, escalated into a battle which ended with nightfall. But on the next day Hannibal was victorious when the eighteenth Roman legion broke ranks and caused panic among the rest of Marcellus’s army. But on the third day of the battle Hannibal army was forced to return to its camp with the losses of 5 elephants (these were received with the reinforcement from Carthage) and 8,000 men. During the night the Carthaginians retreated and, but Marcellus felt unable to follow because of his losses, but he did send scouts to monitor Hannibal’s dwindling force.

...In 207 Hasdrubal, Hannibal’s brother, arrived in Italy by way of the Alps. The brothers arranged to meet in Umbria, but some of their messengers were intercepted and Hasdrubal was moved upon by several Roman armies, which numbered about 40,000. This Roman force attacked and defeated Hasdrubal’s army of 30,000. Hasdrubal was among the 20,000 slain, and his head was catapulted into Hannibal’s camp.

...Now that this last hope of reinforcement was dashed, Hannibal consolidated all that was left his army in Bruttium. In this place he was able to hold back the Romans four years. Now Hannibal but hoped to live and at least for a time he put his dream of sacking Rome away

... Then in 203 Hannibal was recalled to defend Carthage from Scipio (later Africanus) who was planning to invade Africa. But it took Hannibal two years to maneuver to a port from which he could sail to Africa. When he arrived on his native shore, of his army remained but 12,000 veterans. Hannibal had been in Italy for fifteen years, in hostile territory, and had received but little assistance from Carthage. Now he found that peace had been made with Rome, but his arrival caused the Carthaginians to repent of their surrender and again war was declared. And this time Numidia was on the Roman side, and so was the invaluable Numidian cavalry, and, though some were still loyal to Carthage, a number of other African tribes had defected to Rome.

... In the region of Zama near the Bagradas River in 202, Scipio was in a difficult position, for he needed to group up with his new ally, the Numidians who were under Masinissa that he might receive the cavalry that they brought to supplement his infantry. However Hannibal’s army was between the Scipio and Masinissa, for of course Hannibal did not wish that the Roman forces be combined. But Scipio managed a brilliant maneuver and was able to force Hannibal out of his fortified position, which he did by threatening Carthage. Hannibal with 45,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry marched toward Scipio to prevent Scipio from attacking the capitol. After making camp, Hannibal sent out spies to discover the strength of Scipio’s army. But these spies were captured, and astonishingly instead of killing them, Scipio had the spies shown around his camp and then released. For Scipio wished Hannibal to think that he was short on cavalry, when really Masinissa would be arriving with his cavalry in two days.

...Now after the two armies were drawn up in battle formation Hannibal and Scipio met in a parley, in which Hannibal offered surrender of all the places which Rome and Carthage had before been in debate over (Sardinia, Sicily, and Spain), and all of the islands between Carthage and Rome, and a promise that Carthage would never make war on Rome. Scipio however did not except these terms and so purchased another day, and the next morning Masinissa arrived with 6,000 cavalry and 4,000 infantry. Now Scipio entire force numbered approximately 34,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry, while Hannibal had 40,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry.

...Though it may be a legend, It is told, too, that they ( Hannibal and Scipio) had another meeting afterwards, at Ephesus, and that when Hannibal, as they were walking together, took the upper hand, Africanus let it pass, and walked on without the least notice of it; and that then they began to talk of generals, and Hannibal affirmed that Alexander was the greatest commander the world had seen, next to him Pyrrhus, and the third was himself; Africanus, with a smile, asked, "What would you have said, if I had not defeated you?" "I would not then, Scipio," he replied, "have made myself the third, but the first commander." ‘(Plutarch - Life of Flamininus).

...It was a featureless plain that Scipio chose as the location for the battle, but this plain had but one major water source, which forced the Carthaginians to forage farther to gain water. Another fallback for Hannibal was that his force was made up from mostly new recruits, except his veterans from Italy which were nicknamed the Old Guard and he had less than usual cavalry, while Scipio on the other hand had a well trained infantry and a massive and well equipped cavalry.

...In this battle as in others Hannibal attempted to use the double envelopment maneuver on Scipio, but since his cavalry was inferior he used them as bait to draw the opposing cavalry away from the battle. After doing this Hannibal sent 80 war elephants in a long line towards the Romans, this must have been a terrifying sight, but the Romans were able to turn back most of the elephants by scaring them by banging swords on shields and firing arrows at them. Scipio however did almost exactly what Hannibal did at Cannae, first he sent his cavalry in pursuit of the opposing cavalry past Hannibal’s flanks, after defeating the Carthaginian cavalry the Scipio’s changed course back toward the field of battle. In the meantime the infantry lines were preparing to clash. Hannibal’s front line was composed of Gauls and Ligurians, the second was mostly new African recruits, and the final line was the Old Guard. Scipio’s lines were made up in three lines also, but there was more distance between the lines then there was between Hannibal’s lines.

... Once the infantry of these opposing armies came into contact the first Roman line drove the first Carthaginian line into the second Carthaginian line, which would not allow the first line to pass into their ranks so that what was left of the first Carthaginian line went to the flanks of the second Carthaginian line. The same thing happened to second Carthaginian line which after the Old Guard would not let them into their ranks they passed to the flanks. But the Romans were unable to pierce or force back the Old Guard. So Scipio withdrew a short distance and rearranged his troops so that it was now one long line, and though Hannibal did the same the Roman line was longer since they had lost less men. Now when the Romans again came upon the Carthaginians the remainders of the first and second Carthaginian lines were beaten back though as before the Old Guard would not yield.

...But now disaster struck Hannibal when Masinissa came with his cavalry and fell upon the Carthaginian rear, the result was the same as it had been at Cannae, only instead of the Romans receiving the massive losses it was Hannibal. Overall the Carthaginian losses amounted to 20,000 dead, 15,000 captured, while the Roman losses where but a mere 1,500 dead and 4,000 wounded. Hannibal left the field with but a small escort of his troops, and he strongly advised the Carthaginians to get the best terms they could and surrender. And since the battle of Zama left it helpless, so in 201 Carthage surrendered to Rome.

...The terms of Surrender were not as good as those offered before Hannibal’s return to Africa, but still they were not cruel. Spain was to be given to Rome as well as all other countries Carthage had outside Africa, all but ten of the Carthaginian warships were to be given to Rome, as well as all of Carthage’s elephants were to be handed over and finally every year for fifty years Carthage would pay 10,000 talents to Rome. Also Carthage could never make war with Rome, and never could make war anywhere except in Africa and only with Rome’s consent, and Masinissa would receive all the lands of his forefathers.

...On the whole Hannibal had spent 15 years in Italy, and he was said to have slain three hundred thousand in battle and have destroyed four hundred cities, but he accomplished little if any good. But Scipio was awarded the honorary title Africanus (conqueror of Africa) for the service he gave to Rome in that country. But it shows Hannibal’s courage in that even now he did not give up the hope that he might be able to destroy Rome.

... Though he had not been in Carthage for 35 years Hannibal was made Shophet (chief magistrate) of the city. And the time he spent in this position was mostly spent in making many changes for the best, but in doing so Hannibal made enemies of a great deal of nobles who were jealous of Hannibal’s popularity. These nobles exacted their revenge by accusing Hannibal of inciting Antiochus III of Syria to take up arms against the Romans, a lie which the Romans believed, though it may have been out of their spite for Hannibal.

...So Hannibal fled to the court of Antiochus deciding that since he was accused of stirring up Antiochus he might as well help the Syrian in his war on Rome. But Scipio came to the court of Antiochus also and was able to make Antiochus suspect Hannibal of having secret conversation with him. And also Antiochus was envious of Hannibal’s fame and popularity, so he sent Hannibal to raise a fleet in Phoenicia.

... And so for a short time Hannibal became an admiral, but in truth Hannibal was no seamen and this was shown by his defeat he received from the Romans off Side, in Pamphylia. And shortly after this Antiochus was defeated in a land battle by both Scipio Africanus and Scipio’s brother Lucius. But unfortunately when Antiochus surrendered, one of the terms was that Hannibal should be handed over.

...Though opinions vary, Hannibal is thought to have now fled to Armenia in 189 where he helped build a city called Artashat in his gratitude to the king of that country. But it is certain that Hannibal went to the king Prusias of Bithynia in 185. This king was at war with Rome’s ally Pergamum. And Hannibal helped Prusias fight this war and he gained a great victory at sea where he used the first example of biological warfare when he had cauldrons of snakes thrown aboard the enemy ships. Finally a victory among many defeats, but Hannibal was but a shadow of his former glory, and like a beast that could not escape from its hunters, a haggard old man devoid of cheer. But on that day when he won his last victory as he strode among his soldiers he remembered long ago in his youth that he had done likewise before he had carried all the care, worry, and responsibility of being a general.

Epilogue

Somehow the Romans came into position to demand that Prusias give Hannibal to them. To evade the dishonor of being captured, Hannibal at the age of sixty four killed himself by poison. But his military tactics are still taught at academies today. Even though Hannibal taught them most of their basic knowledge of strategy and tactics, the Romans always remembered him as the best of the foes they ever faced. The world will remember Hannibal as one of the greatest generals of all time.

A brief look at the Roman Republic, Part 2

2008-07-03T13:46:00.003-05:00

...It is a general rule that governments effect society, but society shapes government. This is not always the case, nor indeed should it be. God's people have the requirement of obeying and keeping God's laws-not changing them according to the way society happens to perceive things at that time. An example from our own country is abortion, if God says we shall not murder then why do many Christians believe that taking a child's life can be right? But this brings up a whole different topic which is not under scrutiny here. The point merely serves to show us that in most societies the law can be amended and is subject to change based on the people it serves. Rome's Republic was no exception.
...Rome's slow evolving from a Monarchy to a Republic and then at last an Empire can be traced back to the people. The government of Rome reflected its peoples morals and beliefs. Early Rome was a Monarchy, the Monarch had a Senate of advisers but he was the ultimate authority. Then around 509 B.C the nobles rose against their king, overthrew the monarchy and established a Republic. This Republic reflected the strength of the Romans mind, his sanction of liberty. As the people dissolute and effeminate a shift took place in the government. In an instant the Roman Empire was conceived and and under Julius Caesar born. (29 B.C.) Its birth pangs were fairly peaceful in Rome itself, but the rest of the world soon felt the change. And one day, not to far away, Rome would collapse out of its own pleasure seeking and greed.
...But in the Republics day men were not yet so influenced by hedonism. Its citizens were farmers in peace and soldiers in war. Each man held his own land, and so, was self sufficient. Over time the nobles grew dissatisfied and heavy taxes were imposed. When the common man went to fight in Romes wars, away sometimes for years, he found upon his return that that his lands were confiscated. Why? Because while he was away taxes had not been paid. Now he was a tenant on his own land, lucky if he still had a family since the nobles often sold a mans wife to raise money for taxes. Can it be wandered that the Plebians demanded their own Concillium Plebis with Tribunes to protect them?
...A man was the head of his family, called "Paterfamilias" in Latin. Women were subject to their husbands in every way; although they retained their dowry and used it for support in the eventuality of widowhood or divorce. Children were raised with the highest respect for the Paterfamilias, who held the power of life and death over them. When a Patrician girl was between the ages of twelve and fourteen her father arranged a marriage; for the poor marriages generally took place later, around eighteen to twenty. Boys remained under their fathers rule even after marriage, he, his wife and children. when the Paterfamilias died the men started their own-being still connected to their brothers by clan ties called "gens".
...Slaves were less common in early Roman times, but increased rapidly as the Republic neared its end. They received no rights, they were not allowed to vote or own property. The Roman "jus civil" and "jus gentium" laws did not apply to slaves. In fact until the "natural laws" were put in effect, the recieved very little consideration in civil matters at all. Under the "natural laws" however, slave owners were required to treat their slaves well, and slaves were given some basic human rights.
...By the time the Republic became an Empire the people themselves had changed. They were less concerned with justice and equality, their natural vigorof mind dissapated to a mere shadow of its former glory. Rome as a nation was hungry for power, wealth and lands beckoned them alluringly, convincing the citizens that an Empire was desirable for conquest. Certain rich men corrupted the government, and worked on the minds of the common people until they gave up their hardy ways of life in favor of luxory.
...Romes rise and fall was a process, one that her imitators would do well to study. The government reflects the people, and the people need Christs transforming renewing power in their lives. If a people like Romes could create such a strong government; imagine what a people devoted to Christ might do! Men and women, devote yourselves to a high and noble calling-spreading the truth of the gospel in every sphere you touch.

History Scrapbooking! Part 1!!!

2008-07-01T14:46:00.000-05:00

...Scrapbooking has become very popular of late. It is a huge pastime with whole ranges of products that cater to every creative need. From stickers to stylized paper, empty books to embellishing plaques; the scrabook community has it all. Because of the great variety one has the ability to be flexible, there really is no set rule. When designing a scrapbook you get to decide, its up to you! I guess that's one of the things that makes it so exciting.

...Here I am chiefly going to show what I have done with my historical scrapbook. Below are excellent links for some of the resources I use. (time line figures, scrap booking paper, history lap books, TOG) Right now my family is using Marcia Somerville"s Tapestry Of Grace curriculum for history.

http://www.homeschoolinthewoods.com/HTTA/timeline.htm

http://www.joann.com/joann/catalog.jsp?CATID=cat2676

http://www.thehomeschoolmom.com/teacherslounge/lapbooks.php

http://www.tapestryofgrace.com/index.php

...I started out by finding a large binder with lots and lots of thick pages. The front was blank so I got the fun of decorating it, I drew a scene and started painting with acrylics. As you can see I have not finished this part! The title is "Lauren's Scrapbook of Ancient Civilizations".

...Inside the cover is a blank place for the "Contents" to be added once I am finished. The first page is a decorative one, showing some examples of what will be displayed inside.

The first section is on Creation, it features drawings, charts, time lines and verses from Genesis. Old National Geographic magazines are a wealth of clippings on nearly every subject. Here I have cut out some scenes of the universe.

A neat trick to make your book go father is to add flap out pages. My book is about the size of a 12' by 12' piece of scrapbooking paper, so I just pick ones I like and glue the far edge on top of the existing page. This works best with heavier paper, like cardstock. Underneath more things can be displayed, which adds extra depth and hands on to your project!

Below is a fold out book featuring the seven days of creation. It is tied shut with a piece of yarn when not in use. The edges were trimmed with decorative scissors. These are great details to incorporate on your page if you have room! (sorry the picture is blurry)

Noah is featured on the page across from creation, including a sketch of the Tower of Babel. Sometimes I like to draw directly onto the books page rather than paste in a drawing. This page also has a flap, one side of it has a map and the other a genealogy .

...Turning to the next page is Mesopotamia. Here I put in the first overlay map I had done for this book. "Knowledge Quest" has some wonderful maps, which can be ordered on a cd to be printed whenever needed. Many of the maps I have made use theirs as a base. Then I add a clear overlay sheet for further details. At the bottom inside corner of the first page on Mesopotamia I mounted a small envelope for storing extra papers etc.. that would not fit on the page. Sometimes a regular sized mailing envelope works well, but elsewher I also use large ones for even more room.

Next is the "Patriarchs". It is fitting they should come after Sumer, which is where Ur most likely was. This page has Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. On the far page is a family tree my brother and I made while studying this time era. It seemed a shame to put it away somewhere never to be seen again, after all our hard work! So in it went, since it is on the far page I punched a hole through the actual book and it to be able to tie it with a small scrap of leather. (The family tree is a flap up) This way it does not flap open when turning the page.

Much of my clip art came from old illustrated book covers! Most of the time covers get ripped up and ragged anyways, so while making my scrapbook I went through the whole house confiscating book covers. Then I cut out the sample illustrations I wanted and glued them into my scrapbook!

Be on the lookout for Historical Scrapbooking Part 2, which will feature Egypt, Moses, India and China!

Hinduism's Hold

2008-07-01T13:09:00.002-05:00

...Why is it that while so many pagan religions have died out, Hinduism has retained such a firm hold in today's society? If we remember that all mankind have souls as well as bodies, it becomes easier to understand. Although man is fallen we were still created in the image of God. Mankind is searching for truth although ironically it rejects "the Truth", that all are fallen and need a Savior, Jesus Christ. The main Hindu gods are three beings who represent the spirit of the universe, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Although each is is its own entity in a sense, they are also the same thing, or one. This sounds familiar to the Christian mind, since we worship one God who is Three in One. One of many differences between Christianity and Hinduism is that Hindu's believe they can gain salvation on their own, without a savior.Of course this appeals to mans desire to be wise, powerful and like God!Here is a religion which incorporates some convoluted forms of truth, while appealing to mans sinful nature of wanting to be God. Perhaps this is why Hinduism has lasted so long in our society and with such firm roots while other ancient religions have slowly disappeared.

Great Website!

2008-06-28T09:16:00.006-05:00

...I recently came across this wonderful website! Karen's Whimsy is a site where the author has taken literally hundreds of old pictures and made them available to the public. I love looking at the pictures in old books, 1800-1900, so if you are anything like me this site will be a treasure trove!

...I have been using her illustrations(which are open to the public domain)on this blog and with school assignments. Some of them would also be great for little kids coloring. A note of caution; some of the images under the "ancient past" are rather graphic-I recommend parents approving this section themselves. Every parent has his or her own guidelines of course!

...Here is the link and below are some examples of the images available. Enjoy!
http://karenswhimsy.com/public-domain-images/

Facts on Aristotle

2008-06-28T09:13:00.002-05:00

…Aristotle studied far more than just philosophy. One of his chief concerns was physics. Aristotle’s personal doctrine was that the “reason” behind all of what we see in the world is “Cause and Effect”. Namely four causes, material cause, formal cause, efficient cause and final cause. It was these four causes that constituted the changes in life. Matter was potential, that which can be made into something else although the basic element is still there. (i.e... bronze can be made into a statue but the basic element of bronze is still present) The formal cause is the pattern which directs a certain thing, the group to which it belongs; the formal cause is the essence of what a thing is. Efficient cause is an indication of something which has an effect. And finally, the final cause is the driven purpose or goal of a thing.

…Aristotle truly was far ahead of his generation. Aside from his extensive works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, psychology, politics, and art, he found time to devote himself to the study of biology and natural history. It was he who first compiled a list of the different animal kingdoms and species. Aristotle also investigated the differences between animals and humans, being interested in the essence of the soul.

A brief look at the Roman Republic, Part 1

2008-06-19T14:25:00.003-05:00

...In this essay I shall take a look at the Roman Republic in its height. It took many years for the Roman Government to develop into the Republic of Rome and it went through many stages. So for the purpose of lucidity I shall not focus on these stages, in much detail, here. Instead, for the reader interested in in the history of the development of the Rome's Republic, refer to my second essay on the subject which will give greater attention to the cause and effect of its development. Here we shall focus on the attained governments workings in general.

...Before moving on, it will be valuable for us to understand what is implied by the word "Republic." Broadly, it is a form of government where the leader or leaders are elected. This can be contrasted with a monarchy, in which rule is hereditary and for life;and can be compared to a democracy in which the people at large elect leaders. A republic can be run in several ways; such as by a large number of people electing leaders to office (a democratic republic, the United States for example); or by a small select group who represent the people. One of the worlds earliest republics was the Roman Republic, established around 509 B.C.

...The Romans were an independent, fiercely patriotic people. They wanted a government which would bring peace and maintain citizens rights. Yet it must also be strong enough to defend Rome in times of civil unrest.So they developed a Republic. It had offices on many levels, each one's terms lasting for different durations of time. Except for in times of national emergency the office of Consul, the governments head of state, gave the most individual power. There were always two Consuls serving at the same time, that way the power would be checked. Consuls were elected for a term of one year and could veto each others proposals. The most powerful body of the Roman Republic was the Senate however. Their responsibilities involved decrees, foreign policies, administration and finances. And they were in office for life. This was a good start, but nearly all the Senators and Consuls were upper class. Which meant the poor citizens were often taxed beyond their means and treated unfairly in court.

...So new offices had to be developed. The poor and middle classed, called Plebeians, insisted that the aristocratic Patricians give them fair representation in political decisions. When the Patricians refused, often with bloodshed, the Plebeians set up their own representative. Called the Concilium Plebis, which means council of Plebeians or working class, it was headed by an elected leader called a Tribune. This gave the people influence because the Tribune had the authority to veto the Senate and Consuls decisions if they were unfair.

...Yet even within this new system the government was never perfect. Sometimes the people had to much power, and at other times the aristocrats. But at least there was some balance.The different offices held eachother in check, and no one person could sieze absolute power. There was one special office reserved for times of emergency, when Rome itself felt threatened. Because the governement had so many checks and positions of authority, the Roman people knew it would be difficult to make quick desicions in response to a national crisis. So they priveded the office of "Tyrant", a special position for one man who would hold absolute power. His term would only last six months though. As Rome was very strong she rarely needed to appoint someone to this office.

...Stepping back to observe the whole, it must be acknowledged the Roman Republic was a very effective system of government. It had the advantage of representation and concerned itself with the lives of the actual people it served. No one man could sieze power or use power in exess for selfish gain. A republic has its downsides as well, though in most cases the good far outwieghs the bad. An unfortunate aspect of the Roman Republic could certainly be indeciseveness. And the lenght of time it took pass a law or take action.

...Nonetheless, often called the "most balanced of all governmental forms", many governments the world over pattern themselves after Romes Republic. Rome certainly proved for many years the effectiveness of its proud government. Which reflected the beliefs and rights Roman citizens held dear.

Mesopotamian Facts!

2008-06-18T17:32:00.002-05:00

I’ve got a Mesopotamian math teacher?

...How does Mesopotamia have an impact on us today? The Ancient Mesopotamians were a clever and inventive people. Today we still use many of their fascinating and yet practical inventions.
...The Mesopotamians had a hand in some of the common things we use today. The wheel is perhaps their most profound contribution to society. Every time we drive a car, push a cart or ride a bike, we give tribute to this ancient race. Sundials are another one of their achievements. In older times they were used to determine what time of day it was. Although now most people use modern clocks, some still ornament their gardens with a beautiful sundial.
...Some other spheres the Mesopotamians influenced were math and surgery. The Mesopotamians had advanced forms of math. Next time you sit down to do an algebraic equation, thank those Mesopotamians! When a surgeon does his job, he is using some of the same procedures used be Mesopotamian surgeons. These people were doing brain surgery long before we established our modern hospitals!
...Because of those intellectual people who lived so long ago, we have today so many wonderful tools and conveniences at our disposal. People rarely stop to think of how much the Mesopotamians influence us today. Think of them next time you ride in a car or do your math!

Building a time machine won’t get you out of schoolwork

...You are wrong if you think children who lived in Sumer several thousand years ago did not have schoolwork. Boys from wealthy families went to a scribe school. Here among other things, the school boys learned to write cuneiform. Today our alphabet has 26 letters, but in Sumer the alphabet had over 2000 symbols. It took a long time to learn how to write with a stylus on wet clay. Advanced math like Algebra and Geometry were also taught to the students, not to mention literature. Oh, did I mention Botany, or Anatomy? Kids have been doing schoolwork for thousands of years. The Sumerians were no exception.

Coming Soon!

2008-06-18T09:39:00.002-05:00

...I love to display my schoolwork in scrapbooks. Currently I am studying Ancient History, so that is the scrapbook I am working on. It's fun to have inspiration when scrapbooking, especially for those who are unsure how to begin. So I am going to begin a series on the subject soon! Just remember it can be as involved as you want it to be. I prefer to take things into great detail, but some may prefer a simpler layout. It's your project, so make it however best suits your purposes and needs!

Paul the Apostle

2008-06-17T19:50:00.000-05:00

Missionary to the Gentiles

The year was 34 A.D, and the hot sun beat down upon a small band of travelers, making their way to Damascus. The leader, a young man named Saul pressed forward eagerly, while his mind thought about his mission. A few days before Saul had been given permission to arrest the followers of a man called Jesus. He carried with him letters of authority from the high priest in Jerusalem.

Saul’s country had been in a state of political unrest for many years. The Roman Empire was controlling the world including Judea. Some months before, Jesus of Galilee, the simple son of a carpenter, had said he was the Son of God. Every time Saul thought about Jesus’ claim to be the Messiah it made his heart black with rage. Saul knew the Christians were wrong about Jesus because he had studied the Torah and knew by heart the prophecies that said the Messiah would come not to save men’s souls like Jesus had taught, but to help the Jews shake of Roman rule. When he was still a boy Saul’s family had sent him to be educated in Jerusalem under the respected Rabbi Gamaliel. As he grew up, Saul had become an avid student of the law, strictly keeping each commandment and ardently worshiping God, while looking forward to the Messiah who would deliver them from Rome.

Saul reached down to pat the packet of letters on his sash. Soon he would be in
Damascus. Suddenly, without warning a light brighter than the sun shone down from the sky and Saul was knocked to the ground with all his senses reeling. A strong voice said to him “Saul why are you persecuting Me”? Saul’s heart throbbed as he answered, “Who are you Lord”. I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting replied the voice. Trembling Saul asked, “What would you have me do?” Arise go into the city of Damascus, there you will find out,” said the voice of Jesus.

The light faded and Saul’s companions rushed towards him in amazement. To Saul’s dismay he found he was blind. Saul’s friends helped him enter the city a few hours later; leading him by the hand like a little child. Inside the city, Saul would not eat or drink for three days. He lay praying fervently to his Messiah, the Lord Jesus Christ.

The Lord sent a Christian named Ananias to Saul. The man laid his hands upon Saul and prayed for him. Saul’s eyes immediately became clear and he arose asking to be baptized in Jesus name. The persecutor had become what he had once hated.

Saul, who after his baptism was called Paul, preached about what had happened to him on the road to Damascus. Everyone he met was astonished because Paul had earned the reputation of a man who hated Christians. After a while Paul was appointed by the Christian leaders in Jerusalem to be a witness to the Gentiles. So Paul, taking with him a fellow Christian called Barnabus, started on his first missionary journey.

One of the places Paul went to preach was the synagogue in Antioch. There he was trying to show the Jews how Jesus had fulfilled every prophecy written about the Messiah. While listening, the Jews noticed that Paul was allowing the Gentiles to listen too. This made the Jews upset and they stirred unhappily among themselves. Meanwhile the Gentiles were listening intently and hardly able to contain themselves when he had finished, they begged Paul to allow them to come again.

The synagogue was so crowded the following Sabbath day that not everyone could fit inside. When the Jews arrived and saw that almost the entire city of Gentiles was crowded into the synagogue, they became furious. Since the Jews believed that only they were Gods chosen people, they wanted the Gentiles turned away. Paul understood that Jesus had come for all people and tried to explain this to the Jews, but they would not listen. Some of the city’s important men were Jewish and they had Paul and Barnabus thrown out the city gates.

Paul did not despair; he picked himself up and went on his way. The two men set out for Lystra where the inhabitants worshiped many Greek gods. There Paul happened to see a crippled man sitting in the dust. Paul crouched down beside him pityingly. “Stand straight on your two feet” he told the lame man. The Holy Spirit healed the man’s deformed legs and he stood up.

The marketplace where the man had been sitting became quiet. In those times it was unlikely a lame man would ever be healed. Suddenly the people of Lystra started bowing and praying to Paul and Barnabus as if they were gods. Some of them shouted, “These men are the gods Zeus and Hermes come down to us from heaven, while the priests of Zeus hurried to hang rosy garlands and sacrifice bulls to their unexpected gods.

When Paul saw them he tore his clothing and ran about crying to the people “Stop this madness, can’t you see that we’re only mortal men like you?” We have come to teach you about the one true God, not to establish ourselves as gods. After much exhortation, Paul and Barnabus stopped the ardent worshipers from sacrificing to them.

A few days later some of the troublemaking Jews from Antioch came to Lystra.
They spread lies about the missionaries persuading the people to turn against them. Paul was violently seized and dragged by an angry mob into the marketplace. Here where he had been worshiped as a god only a few days before, Paul was pelted with rocks until he fell over, apparently dead. Then the mob left his body for the carrion birds to feed upon. Silently, the Christians of Lystra were gathering around Paul’s body, when suddenly he stood up alive, and unharmed.

Back in Jerusalem around 47 A.D Paul heard of some Christian leaders who were trying to preach Jewish customs to the Gentile Christians. They were telling the Gentile believers that to be saved they must be circumcised and obey all the Law’s of Moses. Paul had come to believe that to be saved one must only believe in Christ, and that it was no longer necessary to adhere to the strict Jewish laws. Paul went to a meeting and shared with the other apostles what he had seen done by God when he was among the Gentiles. Afterwards one of the most important Apostles, Peter, addressed the problem of the day, whether or not the Gentile Christians should be required to follow the Law of Moses. Peter agreed with Paul that the Law was not a requirement for salvation; he also believed that it was only by Gods grace that any, Jews or Gentiles were saved. It was decided that Paul and Barnabus would be sent back to the churches in Antioch. They would take with them a letter disclaiming the false preaching spread there. Paul happily prepared to leave, once again he was returning to the land of the Gentiles.

Around 50 A.D when Paul and a minister called Silas where visiting the church in Lystra, Paul met a young Christian man named Timothy. Paul observed Timothy carefully and was impressed with what he saw. He asked the young man to come with him for the rest of his journey and Timothy eagerly agreed. It was the beginning of dear friendship between the two men. In later times Paul referred to the younger man as his son. Timothy was in fact the son of a Jewish woman, although his father was Greek.

Since Timothy’s father was Greek he had not been circumcised as a child. Paul asked Timothy if he would allow himself to be circumcised, to keep the peace. In Paul’s mind circumcision was a matter of choice, not a requirement. But he was going to be traveling in places where the Jews would be angry and offended if Timothy was uncircumcised. Paul carefully thought about it and decided that it was not worth causing hard feelings over something that could be avoided. Timothy agreed to be circumcised and Paul proved himself a humble, peaceable man, truly concerned with the interests of others.

One night Paul lay sleepless upon his bed as the silver moon shone through the cracks in the mud wall revealing the slumbering forms of his companions. In a vision the Holy Spirit just had revealed to Paul that he was to go to Philippi in Macedonia next. The following morning Paul announced to Timothy and Silas the sudden change in their traveling plans. The apostle and his followers hastily made ready to board a ship headed towards Philippi.

After safely reaching the city, Paul decided to go for a short walk. His steps took him through the city gates and down to a nearby river. The sounds of laughter and splashing caught Paul’s ear as he stood by the water. Following the noise Paul came around a bend and saw a group of women washing their household’s clothes. Paul made his way over to them and sat down, hoping to have a chance to talk to some of them. Soon Paul was conversing with the women, speaking about the subject that was dearest to his heart.

One of the women named Lydia was a dealer in expensive purple cloth made from murex shells. The cloth was so rare that the Romans had passed a law saying only victorious generals could wear it. Though the message Paul was sharing caused some of her friends to titter, Lydia could not stop listening. When Paul had finished he sensed someone behind him and turned to find a woman nervous with excitement waiting to speak to him. “Will you baptize me and my family?” She implored. Paul joyfully agreed, and when they were finished Lydia invited Paul and his friends to stay at her house for as long as they remained in Philippi.

After this Paul often went back to the river to pray and preach. Once after an excursion of this sort he saw a group of people coming towards him. In there midst was a disheveled slave girl, who was possessed by an evil spirit. Because of the demon in her the girl was able to predict the future, bringing a great deal of money to her owners. As the group passed Paul the slave spied him through the throng of people pressing around her. “Look,” the girl screamed at Paul, “This man is a servant of the one true God; he will tell you how to be saved!”

The slave girl followed them everywhere; Paul and his friends were continually shadowed by the demonic shriek. One day as Paul and Silas were walking together they heard her coming. By now Paul was considerably troubled at the constant outcry. So instead of ignoring the girl and going on, Paul turned around and commanded the evil spirit to come out, in Jesus’ name, and immediately the demon left her. When the slave’s owners saw what Paul had done, they turned on him and Silas, dragging them to the city officials. The authorities decided to beat and imprison the two men after the slave owners told them that Paul and his friend were disrupting the peace.

Later that night, Paul and Silas were praying on the floor of a dank cell. The moans of other prisoners reached their ears through the cold wall. Suddenly Paul decided to sing a hymn. Soon Silas joined in. Together they lifted the mournful atmosphere of the prison, their voices echoing through the corridors while singing of the love and reverence they bore towards Christ. Soon the moaning stopped as thief and debtor, slave and murderer stopped to listen.

Just then the prison floor began to shake and rumble and the walls moved. For a few moments a mighty earthquake rocked the prison to its foundation. Then as suddenly as it had started the earthquake ceased. Paul’s chains fell from his hands and he turned to see that Silas was also free. The cell door stood wide open, Paul got up and peered out into the eerie gloom. Silas came over and stood beside him and presently they saw that all the prison doors were open. A slight motion caught Paul’s eye and he saw the jailer draw a sword. To Paul’s horror the jailer turned the blade towards his own heart, preparing to fall upon it; for he believed that the prisoners had escaped which meant his life was forfeit.

“Stop, do not do it, we are all here” shouted Paul. The jailer looked up with relief as he called for a lantern and hurried to the apostle’s cell. Kneeling humbly the man took Paul and Silas hands in his own and asked “sirs, what can I do to be saved”. Kindly the men answered “believe on the Lord Jesus Christ and you will have eternal life”. Then the jailer took them to his own house, where he washed their wounds.

Later that day the magistrates sent messengers to the jailer, ordering him to release Paul and Silas. When the jailer told him, Paul became thoughtful and informed the messengers that he and Silas were roman citizens. This was true, for although Paul was a Jew, he had been born in the Roman city of Tarsus.

Hastily the messengers went to tell their masters, who became frightened because it was against Roman laws to punish an untried Roman citizen. Hurrying to the jailer’s house the magistrates apologized for the misunderstanding and very politely asked Paul and Silas to leave the city. So the two men went to their hostess house, where Timothy met them with relief, and made ready to leave Lystra.

Paul’s next intention was to go to Athens in Greece. Since his two friends were needed at the city Berea for a short time, he set out alone. While Paul was waiting for Timothy and Silas to join him, he explored Athens. It was a beautiful city full of glorious statuary, colorful markets and the greatest thinkers in the world of men. Dodging baskets and litters born on the backs of slaves Paul wandered about, looking at the novelties arranged in booths overshadowed by statues of Greek gods and goddesses. Approaching one of the pedestals supporting the figure a larger, grim looking man wearing heavy armor, Paul traced the words “Ares, god of war.” Another statue bore the inscription “Zeus, King of heaven”. The list went on; everywhere Paul turned he saw another man made image, covered in offerings from devoted worshippers. Besides the images of their gods, the Greeks had many temples. At one of these Paul came across an odd sight. It was an alter without any image which read “To an unknown god”. Paul realized that here was an opening to teach about Christ.

Some philosophers invited Paul to come to a meeting that afternoon and tell them about his beliefs; Athenians were very curious about anything new or different from their own ideas. When Paul arrived men began to question him and soon the whole room wanted to hear him speak. Paul cleared his voice and looked around at his audience. Some were old bearded philosophers; many were confident middle-aged men, and a few were young boys being trained in the Greek school of thought. “Men of Athens I can see that you are very religious for as I walked through your city I saw many temples and alters dedicated to your gods,” Paul announced. He was greeted by a murmur of assent before he went on, in fact I even found an alter to an unknown god in the midst of your worship centers, It is about this unknown god that I am about to speak. Paul told them about Christ and the message of salvation. As he began telling how Jesus resurrected from the grave, most of the Greeks laughed heartily. However a few asked Paul to come back and speak to them again.

At about this time Claudius the Emperor passed a law forbidding Jews to live in Rome. Many Jews were without homes wandering through the Empire looking for new places to stay. Paul met some of them and converted them to Christianity before his companions rejoined him and he left Athens.

Several years later Paul was staying in Ephesus the capitol of Asia. There God gave Paul the power to perform many miracles in Christ’s name. The cloths Paul touched were able to heal the sick and drive out demons. Some Jews wanted to drive out evil spirits as well. They would say “In the name of Jesus whom Paul preaches come out”, since they did not believe in Jesus themselves.

One day seven Jewish brothers gathered around a demon possessed man who lay upon his couch, eyes vacantly shifting to each of their faces. The Jews commanded the evil spirit to leave, using their customary words. The possessed man fixed his eyes upon the men with his teeth barred and the demon said, “I know Jesus and Paul, but who are you?” Then leaping up in a bound he beat each of the men and stripped them of their clothes until they escaped naked.

Soon all of Ephesus was talking about what had happened to the seven men and the name of Jesus was held in great honor. Many of the sorcerers and witches that inhabited Ephesus became believers in Christ and together they burned their black writings where all could see.

Paul had spent nearly two years in Ephesus, not to mention other cities and he decided it was time to go home. He sent Timothy and Silas on ahead of him to Jerusalem, intending to follow them in a few days.

Before Paul could leave Ephesus though, a man named Demetrius decided it was time
to put an end to Paul’s preaching. Demetrius was a silversmith, who made a great deal of money selling silver shrines to honor the Greek goddess Artemis. Lately there had been a dramatic decrease in Demetrius business; due to the enormous amount of Gentiles who no longer worshiped the idols of mans imagination. Demetrius called together some of his fellow tradesmen who also made objects of worship for the Greek gods. The man Paul is ruining our businesses while we stand by watching, Demetrius said angrily. Already our profits are getting low and when that happens we know that the gods are not being worshiped as they deserve, we must stop Paul before he converts every respectable Greek to his scandalous religion. We must act before the alter fires in the temple of our goddess grow cold!

When the crowd of tradesmen realized what Demetrius was saying they became furious. The word spread like wildfire and soon the entire city was shouting, “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians”! For two hours the city was in an uproar, and some of Paul’s friends were dragged to the theater. When Paul heard the commotion he wanted to go to the theater and speak to the people, but his other friends would not let him fearing he would be crushed.

At last a flustered city clerk was able to calm the crowd somewhat. Reasoning with the people the clerk shouted loudly, “Citizens, since the entire world knows that Artemis of the Ephesians is a goddess then why press this matter?, if Demetrius and the other craftsmen wish to bring complaints against Paul then they should do it peacefully in court.” Then he dismissed the subdued inhabitants of Ephesus. After the crowd had dispersed Paul left on his return journey to Jerusalem.

Around 58 A.D Paul was staying in Troas for a few days. On Sunday he gathered the Christians together so that he could speak to them before he left. The shadows lengthened until the only light came from hanging lamps above the assembly. Paul spoke on, heedless of the time, for he was to leave the next morning. The room was an upstairs one with tall windows letting in the cool night air.

Towards the back of the room a young man named Eutychus had taken possession of a comfortable window seat. Paul was talking about important things that took a long time to discuss, and several times Eutychus caught himself falling asleep. Paul looked up at his listeners, and saw a man fall backwards out of a window seat into the night. Women screamed and men rushed downstairs with lanterns. Outside they found Eutychus dead. Wait, Paul cried, making his way to the young man. Assuring the weeping women that Eutychus was not dead; Paul threw himself over the man’s body and held it in his arms. Eutychus, who had been dead a few moments before, opened his eyes and yawned. Feeling hungry he got up and went back to the upstairs to find some food. Paul resumed his talking, never stopping to rest from delivering his precious message until the sun peered through the windows. Then he left Troas.

As Paul continued to Jerusalem, he bade farewell to many churches. People wept when Paul told them that God had made it apparent to him that he would not see them again. Then they would sadly watch Paul board his ship and sail away into the horizon.

Paul made his final stop at the city Caesarea, before entering Jerusalem. He and his companions stayed with a man named Philip the evangelist. One morning gentle knocking announced a visitor to Philips house. A prophet called Agabus came into the room where Paul and the others were sitting. Gravely undoing Paul’s belt, the prophet proceeded to bind his own hands and feet with it. Looking up at Paul, Agabus warned him that the owner of the belt would be bound by the Jews in Jerusalem and handed over to the Romans.

Upon hearing this Paul’s companions cried out and begged Paul not to go to Jerusalem. Tears filled Paul’s eyes as he reached for his friends and said, “My brothers why are you weeping and breaking my heart? I know that I will not only be bound for Christ, but also die for His names sake. Nothing would move him from doing Gods will and after this he went to Jerusalem.

The Christians in Jerusalem were overjoyed to see Paul after so long. But as usual there were problems to be settled concerning Gentiles and the Mosaic Law. Although they had settled with Paul that the Gentiles were not subject to the Laws extremities, they knew that many of the Jewish people did not understand Paul’s motives. Thinking it best to keep peace, the Elders in Jerusalem asked Paul to go to the temple and cut his hair as well as purify himself, a rite held to dedicate the man to the Lord. The Apostles in Jerusalem explained to Paul that some of the Jews believed he was trying to discourage the Jewish people from obeying the Laws of Moses. By participating in the purification vows at the temple Paul would be showing the people that he was still a law-abiding citizen.

Paul agreed to the plan. While he was at the temple a few Jews recognized him. “This man is defiling our holy temple by allowing gentiles to enter it, and he preaches against us and our laws” they shouted. The people grabbed Paul and rushed him outside through the gates of the temple. Before Paul could get up the mob began to trample him under foot. As Paul was rolling about, beginning to feel weak, he saw some Roman soldiers pushing their way through the crowd, coming towards him. Reaching Paul the soldiers placed him under arrest for disturbing the peace and tried to march him away. The angry mob pushed so hard on the soldiers that armed

as they were, the soldiers feared they would not be able to get their prisoner out of the crowd alive. Only after Paul was carried upon the soldiers backs could they escape the crowd.

Before Paul went into the Roman barracks he called out to the commander, “Please, may I speak to the people?” Startled that Paul spoke Greek the commander gave his consent, motioning his soldiers to release their charge. Paul climbed the barrack steps and told the Jews how he had seen Christ on the road to Damascus. The Jews listened until Paul said that God had sent him to the Gentiles. Then the peace was shattered and the people shouted more than ever as they demanded Paul’s death. The commander turned to his men and told them to take Paul inside and beat him until they found out why the people were angry with him. As they prepared to beat Paul, he asked one of them who was standing near if it was lawful to beat an untried Roman citizen. The soldier ran straight to his commander and reported that the man they were about to beat was a Roman. The commander strode down to where Paul was being held and asked “Is it true you are a Roman citizen?” Yes Paul answered, I am one by birth. The men who were restraining Paul drew back alarmed and even the commander was disturbed when he found out he had chained a roman citizen.

On the following day the commander put Paul on trial before the chief priests yet nothing could be found to charge him with. When things got out of hand and riotous the commander removed Paul and sent him back to the barracks. That night as Paul was sleeping the Lord comforted him in a dream assuring him that he would live to carry the gospel all the way to the capitol of the world, Rome.

A group of Jews were waiting to speak to the commander the next morning. They wanted Paul come and answer questions again that day. Unknown to the Romans however, forty Jewish men had sworn a solemn oath to neither eat nor drink until Paul was dead. These men intended to ambush Paul on his way to the assembly and kill him. Fortunately for Paul, his nephew who lived near happened to overhear what was planned. The boy had hurried to warn his uncle about the danger he was in, arriving before the Jewish men. The commander thought quickly, it would not be safe for Paul to remain near Jerusalem, so he decided to send him to the governor of Caesarea. Calling aside two of his centurions the commander ordered them to leave with Paul that night taking two hundred soldiers, two hundred spearmen and seventy horsemen to guard from a surprise attack. The centurions bore a letter for the governor, telling why Paul was under arrest.

Governor Felix of Caesarea was an important man, with a weakness for money. When he had read the commanders letter and heard Paul’s defense; also hearing the Jews many accusations against Paul, intermixed with complements for himself, Felix sighed. He knew of these Christians and had dealt with the Jews unreasonable charges before. “Wait until the commander arrives” Felix implored the Jews and Paul; after all he had actually been at the riot and would know all the facts.

A few days had passed and Felix decided it would be interesting to hear Paul speak about his beliefs in private. So he summoned Paul, and accompanied by his wife Felix prepared to listen to the apostle. At first Felix was amused, but when Paul began to talk about the judgment of God, he felt his face turn white. Great fear came over Felix and motioning Paul to stop he said “Go away now Paul, I will send for you again when it’s convenient for me.” Felix did not set Paul free though, because he hoped that Paul would offer him a bribe for his release. Since Paul never did he remained a prisoner in Caesarea for two years.

At last Governor Felix was recalled to Rome and a new man named Festus arrived to take his place. Festus called an assembly together of all those who wished to press charges against Paul and prepared to judge the case. Paul spoke well, defending himself from the Jews accusations with consistency, and after listening Festus could not find any fault with the prisoner. The Governor asked Paul if he would go to Jerusalem and be tried there like he had two years before; Festus was new to his office and wanted to become popular among the Jews, hence why even though he had determined that Paul was innocent he wished for him to be tried again. Paul stood up and answered “I appeal to Caesar, if there is any truth in the accusations against me then I am have no objection to dieing, but you know I am innocent and therefore no one has the right to deliver me to the Jews.” Festus shook his head. After talking with his advisers Festus turned back to Paul and said, “You have appealed to Caesar, and then to Caesar you will go.”

The year was 59 A.D when King Agrippa of Galilee came to visit Festus. For a while now Festus had been frustrated about Paul’s case, so he decided to ask Agrippa for his opinion. King Agrippa became very interested and asked if he could listen to Paul personally. Festus was delighted to learn that the King was willing to help him decide what was to be done with Paul. The next day as Paul was sitting in his cell he heard footsteps walking down the corridor. The steps stopped in front of his door and the grating sound of a key turning in the lock made Paul look up. A guard came in and asked Paul to accompany him. He followed the guard into a large well-furnished room full of people lounging on couches, being entertained by dancing.

Governor Festus stood up when he saw Paul and announced, “Here is the man Paul have told you about, the Jews hate him yet I find he has done nothing wrong.”; Unfortunately he has appealed to the emperor, making it impossible for me to free him. I ask you who are here today to help me find something to say about Paul in the letter I must send to Rome concerning him, because it is only logical that a prisoner has some charge against him.

Agrippa turned to Paul saying “You may tell us about yourself”. Paul respectfully bowed to King Agrippa. Carefully remembering each detail Paul told the story of his life, and as he talked vivid memories came back to him, the road to Damascus, Christ’s voice, blindness and salvation. Oh King Agrippa, Paul cried out when he had finished his narrative; I have not disobeyed my Lord. Christ commanded me to go unto the Gentiles and tell them the truth, to bring them out of darkness into light, to turn them from Satan to God. I am standing on trial before you now because it is Gods will that I testify to you that the prophecies have been fulfilled through Jesus Christ. Christ suffered, lived the perfect life, died on the cross, resurrected from the dead and now He is proclaimed to the Jews and Gentiles as the Messiah! When Paul paused for breath after saying this, Festus leapt to his feet and exclaimed “Paul you are simply insane, I believe all your studying has driven you out of your mind.” Calmly Paul replied, “I am not mad great Festus, I speak the truth and your friend King Agrippa who knows of the prophecies will be able to tell you I am not insane.

Paul asked a simple question of Agrippa, “Do you believe in the prophets? I know you do. The King let a moment of silence follow Paul’s questioning statement. Finally he answered Paul with a question of his own “Do you believe that within such a short time you will convince me to become a Christian? Paul had a reply already on his lips “I pray that not only you but everyone in this room will become what I am, except for my chains”. When Agrippa heard Paul say this he went out with Festus the others.

All the audience agreed that the apostle was innocent, and Agrippa was especially sorry that Paul had appealed to Caesar and could not be set at liberty.

In 60 A.D Paul boarded a ship headed for Lystra where he had nearly been stoned to death fourteen years before. For a while the trip went smoothly, good sailing and fair winds sped the ship on its way. Then Paul was transferred to different ship headed for Alexandria in Egypt, its final destination being Rome.

The captain who commanded the second ship was unwise and foolish. Instead of remaining in port when the winter storms were near the ship, he sailed into a terrible hurricane. Even though Paul was shipwrecked and stranded on a strange island God took care of him and his life was spared.

It was three months until the centurion in charge of the prisoners could find a new ship to take them to Italy. During that time Paul did many miracles among the islands people. Now Paul was on his way again. He watched the ever billowing sea as the ship brought him closer and closer to his final destination. Land was sighted and soon rocky coastline came into view. Only a little longer and Paul would at last be in sight of Rome.

Epilogue

Paul reached Rome in about 61-62 A.D. The Bible tells us that Paul was imprisoned there for a long time. Whether he was ever released is a matter of debate since the Bible does not tell us exactly what happened to Paul after his years of captivity in Rome. What is certain is that Paul continued to share the gospel throughout his imprisonment without fear for his life, for the apostle said in a letter to Timothy; If we died with Him, We shall also live with Him. If we endure, we shall also reign with Him. (2 Tim 2:11-12) Although no one knows how Paul died, it is generally believed that he was beheaded under the Roman Emperor Nero in 64-66 A.D. Let us take to heart the lessons Paul taught about the faith so that when we die we may be able to say like him, “I have fought the good fight, I have finished the race, I have kept the faith. (2 Tim 4:7)

Bibliography

New King James Bible Biblical Times (Antony Mason)

The Revell Bible Dictionary Bible Lands (Eyewitness)

The Narrated Bible (F. LaGard Smith) Atlas of the Bible (Readers Digest)

Commentaries on Acts (John Calvin)

Atlas of the Bible (Readers Digest)

The Peloponnesian Wars

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The Peloponnesian Wars

Because Persia was a threat to small independent-spirited Greece, the Greek city states decided to form a confederacy called the Dorian League. Each of the Greek states; Athens, Sparta Corinth, Delos and many others, would still have there own individual government and freedoms. Yet in matters of trade, war and public funding they would consult each other. Athens was the most important city state having power and influence; however the League was named after Delos where the treasury was kept.

After Persia suffered defeat in 468 B.C., the Greeks bethought themselves safe and wished to dismantle the League. But Athens had grown power hungry. She had benefited greatly during the wars with Persia by using the extra money to build up her temples and walls. Athens was also the one who had built and controlled the Greek navy which won victory over the Persians in the battle of Salamis. Now dismayed at the thought of loosing her high seat of power, the Athenians used their navy to turn on their countrymen. Thus the Peloponnesian Wars began.

Staged in two phases, from 431-404 B.C., the civil war raged on. With it came hardships and plague. Athens won the first stage after a long hard siege, but lost the second when she overreached her arm.

The first stage began and ended with the great Athenian politician, speaker and general Pericles. Elected tyrant during the wars early years, Pericles was an eloquent man and strong leader. When faced with siege he did not flinch, knowing that Athens ports could stay open thus supplying the city with food indefinitely. For two years Athens held out valiantly.

Outside the walls of Athens camped a new confederacy, the Spartan League. As its name indicates the Spartans were the Leagues strongest players. They were angry with the thought of becoming a part of Athens Empire and violently opposed it. They had always been a warrior city-state, with warriors raised from infancy to know the art of war and defend Spartan rights.

Meanwhile the Athenians held out tolerably well with their navy supplying food and products. Then Providence decreed an unforeseen turn and plague struck the city: one third of its population died including Pericles. This was disheartening to the Athenians who never fully recovered. It seemed an omen of foreshadowing doom, eventually the Athenian Empire must crumble.

Still the Athenians did what they could. New Tyrants ruled one after the other, but none of them compared to Pericles. Indeed most of them were foolish and wanted only popularity with the people rather than making wise decisions for the war. Eventually under one of these tyrants Athens attacked the city of Melos, a city in league with the Spartans: and put to death every man of fighting age while enslaving the women and children.

For a time it seemed that this act of brutality had brought victory to Athens. She regained much of her former strength and the first phase of the Peloponnesian wars came to an end. But then Athens decided she wanted to control a city called Syracuse in Sicily, by doing so she would gain access and control of all the Greek colonies and trade. Essentially she would become the only power and win the war. The second phase was ushered in.

This second phase lasted thirteen years, and they were draining years for Athens. Before two had even passed she lost an army and two large flats. Now was when they needed their strong leader Pericles, but he alas was dead!

Amazingly Sparta at this point was so intent on defeating Athens that she was willing to turn to the Greeks old enemy Persia for help. In return for money, which Sparta wanted to build a fleet, Sparta promised to give Persia the Greek cities of Ionia. How fickle politics are! What began as a united effort to drive Persia from its stronghold in Ionia, ended in Persia being handed the bloodied cities in return for money. Mineral for the blood of patriots and rivalry for the land of brothers.

With its fleet built Sparta headed to the seas, hoping to gain victory on water where they had not on land. Athens must have must have been alarmed, for she had but one fleet left at this time. Yet it was impossible to back down, so the battle ensued. Sparta won at last and Athens was forced to give up her territories, dismiss her armies and crawl home to lick her wounds.

What meanwhile were the other smaller, but still significant city states thinking? They rejoiced at Athens defeat, hoping for rest and renewed peaceful trade. Happily they concluded prematurely that they were free to govern themselves as they wished.

Yet while the Peloponnesian wars finally ended, the Greek people still could not claim peace. One threat precedes another and now Sparta was not willing to up her luxurious hold on the other city states, which now included Athens. This threat was far worse than the other for Sparta was a harsh totalitarian society, which no one wanted in power.

And so the city states once again formed a confederacy, this time without a notable name. Together they waged war on Sparta, eventually defeating her and gaining some much needed respite. Now the city states had come full circle, they were back were they started nearly thirty years later. The major civil wars were over for a time.

Alexander the Great

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Christ and Alexander

In the year of 356 B.C. a beautiful baby boy was born, his name was Alexander. We now know him as Alexander the great because of what he accomplished in his short life of 32 years. It is interesting to see the contrast between this Macedonian mans life and that of a certain Jew named Jesus Christ. Jesus also lived 32 years, but his kingdom is a heavenly one which cannot be taken away. Whereas Alexander’s vast empire and wealth fell apart after his death.

Alexander’s father was Philip of Macedonia and his mother was a priestess called Olympia. Although he would be far outshone by his son, Philip began what Alexander later finished; building an empire. Philip had a drive for power and he set about putting his own kingdom in order, all the while waiting, waiting for the opportunity to conquer his Greek neighbors. Alexander must have inherited his fathers conquering spirit because at an early age he tamed a wild horse- which later became his famous steed Bucephalus.

Philip accomplished much in his lifetime and died around 336 B.C., it is probable he was murdered. This left 20 year old Alexander king of Macedonia and although young he was fully prepared for the responsibility of running a kingdom. Besides, his father had already done all the groundwork of training an army and securing a kingdom. So Alexander turned his eyes towards Persia, the old enemy of the Greeks. He began dreaming of defeating them in battle and spreading Greek supremacy to the entire known world.

While Alexander was planning to bring himself glory and fame, Jehovah was bringing all His purposes to pass. Daniel prophesied 300 years before Alexander’s birth that he would come and defeat Persia. In Daniel 8: 7-8 Alexander is described as a goat and Persia as a ram, and the ram was defeated by the goat. The Jewish people were under heavy oppression from Persia at that time, and in God’s providence He decreed that Alexander would come lift their burden. Indeed it is amazing that Alexander had mercy on the Jewish people after destroying so many other nations.

Determined and resolute Alexander marched his forces against Persia. Within several months Darius, king of Persia, must have been quaking in his kingly robes as Greece’s new ruler proved his power. Alexander won the battles of Issus, Granicus, and Gaugemala… and kept marching on.

Persopolis, the capitol city of Persia’s empire finally fell into Alexander’s hands in 331 B.C. Triumphant at last; Alexander sat in Persia’s great gilded throne and exclaimed “So this is what it feels like to be an Emperor”. But with victory came a price, Alexander grew vain and imagined himself a god. This led to discontentment among his soldiers who were free Greeks and valued independence. Still, Alexander held a strong sway over them, and the East had captivated him.

So once again Alexander called hi vast army together and prepared to campaign in India. Somehow Persopolis was burned to the ground soon after; some say it was Alexander’s final revenge on Persia, others believe it was an accident. India was an unknown challenge to the Greeks, its climate and terrain soon began to wear them down. Their leader urged them to press on, realizing more and more India’s wealth in jewels, gold and spices. But when Alexander himself became ill with a putrid fever which nearly claimed his life, he ordered a retreat.

Death loomed over Alexander now, he was weak and yet proud. His actions further separated him from his Greek generals as he spent long nights reveling. Once while in his drunken state, he ordered the death of a close friend who had once saved his life! It was now, at the height of his power and corruption that Daniel had prophesied his reign would end. “Daniel 8:8”

Unexpectedly in 323 B.C. Alexander the Great died. It came as a shock to his Kingdom, as the man was young and in comparatively good health. Worse, the Emperor left no capable heir. His only child was not yet born; the people knew not whether the baby would be male or female; and Alexander had made no provision for administration until the child should come of age. Apparently he had not thought to die so suddenly or so young. This left the door open for his four generals to seize power. They murdered all of Alexander’s family members and divided the kingdom among themselves. Ptolemy ruled Egypt; Lysimachus took Thrace and Asia Minor; Selucucus took Syria, Mesopotamia and Persia; leaving Cassander Macedonia and Greece.

What began with Alexander, ended with Alexander. His vision of a great united empire died with him and instead was divided into four manageable pieces. Yet God was at work building His kingdom which would last for all eternity. Through Alexander a new culture was born, the “Hellenistic Period”. Because of Alexander the Great, Greek language was spread to most of the known world. The New Testament was first written in Greek and many people were able to read it and join the kingdom of Christ. God’s sovereign hand on His-story has and always will be perfect!

“He is no fool who gives what he cannot hope to keep, in order to gain what he cannot loose.”
Jim Elliot

“The days go by, they quickly pass,

Only what’s done for Christ will last.”
Anonymous